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STUDY OF FABRICS 



HOME ECONOMICS SERIES 



STUDY OF FABRICS 



BY 

ANNABELL TURNER 

l( 

INSTRUCTOR IN HOME ECONOMICS, 
EXTENSION DIVISION, UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIM 




ILLUSTRATED 



D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 
NEW YORK LONDON 

1918 



^Sn^^ 






COPYRIGHT, 1918, BT 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 



NOV 15 1918 

Printed in the Tnited States of America 
©CI.A5U816i 



PEEFACE 

The object of this book is to give the reader a 
knowledge of the various textile fibers, their proper- 
ties in regard to warmth and hygiene, their cleansing 
and laundering possibilities ; and such understanding 
of the processes of manufacture as will enable her to 
judge, intelligently, good and bad materials, adul 
terations, prices, weaves, etc. Upon woman devolves 
the responsibility of the economical expenditure of 
the family income ; it is her duty to know that she is 
receiving the worth of her money, and, yet, most 
women are dependent upon the word of the clerk, 
very often far more ignorant than the purchaser. 
The standard of materials will never be raised to its 
proper level, until the consumers are intelligent 
enough to make the demand. 

A detailed study is made of each of the common 
textile fibers used for household purposes — cotton, 
linen, wool, and silk — taking up the growth, manu- 
facture, physical, and chemical properties with special 
emphasis on the practical household tests which may 
be used in detecting adulterations and judging of 
the quality. Laundry problems are discussed at some 
length dealing with the cleansing agents commonly 
used in the laundry and the principles which should 
govern a choice of the method best suited to in- 
dividual conditions. Removal of stains and dry 




PREFACE 

cleaning are treated in a simple, unteehnical way. 
One chapter deals with the economic side of the 
clothing problem. Suggestions are given as to the 
most economical ways of spending the clothing al- 
lowance, the proportion of the income which should 
be spent for clothing, and there is some discussion 
of clothing budgets. Only pre-war prices are given 
in this book and they can be considered only as a basis 
of comparison. 

Annabell Turner. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGB 

I. Cotton 1 

IL Wool 30 

III. Tests for Woolen Materials . • . . 51 

IV. Silk 66 

V. Linen 90 

VI. Laundry Problems 104 

VII. Hygiene of Clothing 141 

VIII. The Economics of Clothing .... 163 

Index 195 



LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS 

PAGE 

Girl spinning 2 

Throwing the shuttle through the warp shed by 

hand 4 

A cotton boll unopened . . • . . 8 

A cotton boll opened . * 10 

Types of cotton fibers . ... . . .13 

Cotton, mercerized and stretched, showing in- 
complete mercerization . . . . .19 

Comparison of different varieties of wood . . 31 

A pair of hand cards 36 

Woolen goods as it comes from the loom. Same, 

after shrinking. Teasel . . . .39 

A woolen yarn untwisted. A worsted yarn un- 
twisted 41 

Poor quality shoddy. Better quality shoddy . 45 

Warp and woof threads exposed separately . . 55 

Materials before and after boiling in the lye 

solution 57 

Materials before and after boiling in the lye 

solution 59 

ix 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

.Materials before and after boiling in the lye 
solution ...... 



Silkworm culture .... 

Heel in operation 

Keeleil antl waste silk . . . . 

Weighted silk above, pure silk below, before and 
after burning .... 

Weighted silks before and after burning 

Weighted silks before and after burning 

Ture silks before and after burning 

(Miardonnet silk fibers 

Flax in different stages of its preparation for 
weaving 

Flax fibers 



PAGE 

60 
67 
71 
71 

83 
84 

85 
86 



91 
97 



TFTF' 

STUDY OF FABRICS 

CHAPTER I 
COTTON 

Evolution of Spinning and Weaving.— The 

textile art is older than man, for, long before 
he came upon earth, spiders and caterpillars 
spun their threads, birds wove their nests, 
and certain trees fabricated a kind of cloth by 
closely interweaving the fibers of their inner 
bark. Man gradually conceived the idea of 
using this bark for clothing by soaking it in 
water and beating it with wooden mallets to felt 
the fibers together. It was then dried and 
bleached in the sun and colored with vegetable 
dyes, the method of coloring being to lay a leaf 
or flower on the dye and, as soon as the surface 
was covered with the dye, to press it down on 
the cloth, thus fixing the design. The bark most 

1 



2 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

used for this ^^Tapa cloth/' as it is called, was 
that of the paper mulberry. 

Perhaps the interlacing of the barks sug- 
gested other possibilities to the people of that 
day, for they began rudely to weave together 
reeds, rushes, and twigs to form baskets and 




Courtesy of Marshall Field & Co. 

Girl Spinning 

mats, expressing their conception of art and 
beauty by combinations of color and weave. 
Beautiful examples of primitive weaving are 
found in northern South America, Africa, and 
among the western Indians. 

It was with tlie discovery of spinning yarn 
that the true textile art began, and although 



COTTON 3 

there is no authentic information as to the ac- 
tual time of the origin of spinning, we do know 
that it dates back before 2,000 B. C. Early 
nomadic tribes used threads to fasten together 
the skins which they used as clothing — perhaps 
wool torn from the sheep in passing bushes 
and brambles may have suggested it to them. 

Until 1,500 A. D. all spinning was done by 
hand and a spindle, which was at first merely 
a stick upon which the thread was wound. Later 
it was discovered that the spindle could be 
whirled around faster if it had a weight on 
the end, so a piece of wood was attached to 
the lower end. This was called the whorl. The 
need of something to fasten the wool to, brought 
about the distaff, a stick around which the wool 
was wrapped and then held in the hand or 
tucked in the belt. 

At the end of the fifteenth, or beginning of 
the sixteenth, century a one thread machine was 
invented which enabled the spinner to produce 
seven times more yarn than by the distaff and 
spindle. Gradually improvements and new in- 
ventions followed, so that today most of the 
spinning has been taken from women's hands 
and is produced by means of machinery. 



4 THE STUDY OP FABRICS 

The weaving of the spun yarn came as a natu- 
ral sequence to the discovery of spinning. 
Linen cloth of exquisite fineness of thread and 




Throwing the Shuttle through the Warp Shed by 
Hand 



COTTON 5 

evenness of weave is found in old Egyptian 
tombs, and the early Greeks and Eomans pro- 
duced woolen fabrics of great beauty and firm- 
ness. Manufacture of both wool and flax ex- 
isted in Greece in the days of Homer. 

The early Egyptian loom was a vertical frame 
similar in idea to the tapestry loom. Some 
savage tribes stretched the warp threads be- 
tween convenient objects on the ground or from 
horizontal supports and wove back and forth 
between the warp threads as in darning. Many 
modifications have come since the early days 
but the same three steps to the process of weav- 
ing remain, whether the weaving be done on the 
crudest of hand looms or upon the most modern 
machinery: (a) shedding, the lifting of certain 
warp threads, thereby making a space, or shed, 
through which the shuttle is passed; (b) pick- 
ing, passing the shuttle through the threads; 
and (c) battening, pressing the weft thread 
against the preceding ones to make the cloth 
firm and even. 

Paets of a Loom 

1. Loom. — An arrangement for spreading a warp and 
keeping it in order for weaving. 



6 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

2. Raddle. — An implement used for spreading the 

warp evenly. 

3. Beams. — (a) Warp beam, used for winding up the 

warp threads. 

(b) Cloth beam, used to wind up the fin- 
ished, woven material. 

4. Leash. — Loops throufi:h which threads are passed to 

give pattern to the weave. 

5. Ileddle. — A collection of heddles. 

6. Shed. — The opening made in the warp for the pas- 

sage of the shuttle — produced by the heddle. 

7. Shuttle. — A tool used for carrying the weft. 

8. Reed, — A comb-like instrument for keeping warp 

even and beating the weft together. 

9. Tenterhooks. — Contrivances to hold the warp even 

on the sides. 



Cotton.— The cotton plant belongs to tlie nat- 
ural order of Malvaceae, or mallow family, and 
is known scientifically bj^ the generic name 
^^Gossypium." It is a shrub which reaches a 
height of from four to six feet, and is indige- 
nous principally to islands and sea-coast regions 
of the tropics, although it can be cultivated up 
to about 37° on either side of the equator. A 
warm, humid climate and sandy soil are most 
favorable to its growth. 

There are many varieties of the cotton plant, 
the most important being: (a) Gossypium her- 



COTTON 7 

baceum, which grows from 4 to 6 feet in height 
and bears a yellow flower. The seeds are cov- 
ered with a short gray down and the fiber is 
short. This variety is found in Egypt, Asia 
Minor, Arabia, India, and China, (b) Gossy- 
pium arbareum, which grows to a height of from 
15 to 20 feet. The seed is covered with a green- 
ish fur and is enveloped in a fine silky down, 
yellowish white in color. It is found in Egypt, 
Arabia, and China, (c) Gossypium barbadense, 
which grows from 6 to 15 feet high. The flowers 
are yellow and the seeds black and smooth, be- 
ing destitute of the hair that characterizes other 
cottons. It is a native of the Barbadoes, from 
which it derives its name. The best quality 
cottons come from this species — Sea Island and 
Florida cottons — from which are spun the finest 
yams. Long-stapled Egyptian cotton is sup- 
posed to have come from this stock. The chief 
cotton countries of the world in order of impor- 
tance are: United States, India, Egypt and 
Brazil, West Indies, West Coast of Africa, 
Asia, Asia Minor, China, and Queensland. 

In the southern states cotton is planted with 
a machine, the seeds being dropped in a con- 
tinuous stream. When the young plant is about 






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COTTON 9 

three inches high it is thinned out with a hoe — 
about twelve inches being left between plants. 
The time for planting depends upon the lati- 
tude, beginning about the middle of March and 
ending the first half of May. 

Ten or eleven weeks after the planting, the 
shrub is ready to bloom. The flower has five 
petals, yellow^ at the base and growing lighter 
in color at the edges. When the flower drops 
off, a dark green pod is seen which increases 
in size and finally discloses a mass of downy 
white fibers in which are imbedded the dark 
brown or black seeds. The cotton is picked as 
soon as ripened and separated from the seeds 
by a process known as ginning. The seeds are 
hulled and the kernel put through a hydraulic 
press which squeezes all the oil from it, leav- 
ing the meal, which is used as feed for cattle. 
The refined oil is used as a substitute for olive 
oil, the residue being used as soap stock. 

After the cotton is ginned it is baled and 
shipped to the mill, the standard size of a cotton 
bale in the United States being 56 by 24 by 32 
inches and weighing about five hundred pounds. 
The bales are wrapped in bagging and strapped 
with sheet-iron bands. When the cotton ar- 



COTTON 11 

rives at the mill the bales are broken and the 
cotton starts upon its journey, passing through 
various processes until it is converted into yarn. 
The first step consists in giving the cotton a 
thorough cleaning, which is accomplished by a 
series of machines which pull the wads of cot- 
ton into shreds, beat out the dirt and any seeds 
left in, and finally leave the cotton in the form 
of batten upon the cylinders. From here the 
cotton goes to the carding machine where it is 
combed to straighten the fibers and remove any 
remaining foreign material and also some of 
the short fibers. Then it goes into the combing 
machine which casts aside as waste all fibers 
below a certain length, passing the rest on to 
the drawing machine where the fibers are laid 
perfectly straight and parallel and the cotton 
drawn out as much as possible without break- 
age. The combing process is omitted unless 
the cotton is being prepared for especially fine 
or high grade materials. 

Several intermediate steps take place before 
the fiber is spun into yarn, the principal point 
of difference being the amount of twist im- 
parted to the strand. Spinning produces the 
finished yarn, which is converted into thread by 



12 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

imitiiii;- two or more yarns firmly by twisting. 
All sizes of 6-cord threads are made of six 
strands and 3-cord spool cotton is made of three 
strands. The ordinary spool of cotton thread 
contains 200 yards. 

Before being woven into cloth, cotton threads 
are strengthened by coating them with a prepa- 
ration of starch, flour, paraffin, tallow, etc., to 
enable them to withstand the friction result- 
ing from the weaving process without break- 
ing. After weaving, the material is bleached, 
starched, and calendered, the object of the last 
process being to give it a perfectly smooth and 
even surface and also to impart a luster to the 
cloth as it passes through. The cloth is calen- 
dered several times, according to the finish re- 
quired. 

Cotton is dyed either in the yarn or in the 
cloth, but it has much less affinity for dyestuffs 
than animal fibers, and, relatively speaking, 
there are only a few with which it can be dyed 
without the assistance of a mordant. 

Physical Characteristics, — Under the micro- 
scope the cotton fiber usually presents the ap- 
pearance of a flat, slightly tw^isted ribbon with 
thickened edges. Physically the individual cot- 



COTTON 13 

ton fiber consists of a single long cell with one 
end attached directly to the surface of the seed. 
While it. is growing, the fiber is round and cylin- 




Types of Cotton Fibers 

1. Glossy, dead, structureless fiber; 

2. Thin, transparent, flat, unripe fiber; 

3. Half ripe fiber with thin cell wall; 

4. Mature, ripe fiber with full twist and thick, well- 
defined cell wall. 

drical, having a central canal running through 
it, but after the pod has ripened and burst the 
cell wall collapses, causing the fiber to form into 
fi flat^ ribbon-like band. Upon ripening, the 



14 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

juices in the inner tube dry up, causing the 
characteristic spiral twist of ripe cotton. This 
spiral twist makes cotton valuable for spinning 
purposes as it causes the fibers to lock around 
each other more tightly. In diameter the cotton 
fiber is rather even for the greater part of its 
length, gradually tapering to a point at its out- 
growing end. The lengths of different varieties 
of cotton fibers vary from three-fourths to two 
and one-half inches, sea-island cotton being the 
longest. 

The hygroscopicity, or power to absorb water 
without feeling damp, is between six and eight 
per cent of its weight. Cotton which has been 
freed from the natural vegetable wax is more 
hygroscopic, and is known as absorbent cotton. 

Linen has the greatest power of heat conduc- 
tion and cotton ranks second. Materials made 
from linen are, therefore, the coolest and cotton 
materials come next. 

Though resistant to the action of moths and 
insects in general, cotton is liable to undergo 
fermentation, as is evidenced by the formation 
of mildew on cotton fabrics stored in warm, 
damp places. 

Chemical Nature of Cotton. — In its chemical 



I 



COTTON 15 

composition, cotton consists almost entirely of 
cellulose, on the surface of which is a protect- 
ing layer of wax which is removed in one boiling 
out and bleaching process performed previous 
to the dyeing and printing of the cotton. 

Effect of Chemicals on the Fiber. — Organic 
acids and their salts, such as acetic acid in vine- 
gar, oxalic in rhubarb, tartrates in grapes, and 
citrates in lemons, even when moderately con- 
centrated, do not appear to have any injurious 
effect upon the cotton fiber unless they are al- 
lowed to dry on the fabric and are afterwards 
moistened and ironed dry with a hot iron. The 
destructive action is not so much of a chemical 
nature as mechanical, it being caused by the 
acids crystallizing within the fiber and breaking 
the cell wall. Dry heat in connection with or- 
ganic acids is more injurious than moist heat. 
Very dilute solutions of mineral acids, if cold, 
have no appreciable effect upon cotton, but if 
the fiber is impregnated with such a solution 
and allowed to dry rapidly it becomes tender 
due to the concentration of the acid induced by 
the evaporation of water. Heat will cause di- 
lute mineral acids to attack the fiber much more 
readily than otherwise. In all dyeing and 



16 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

bleaching operations, therefore, where the use 
of acid may be required, the temperature of the 
acid baths should not be above 70° F., nor 
should a solution greater than two per cent be 
used. Organic acids should be substituted for 
mineral acids wherever possible, and all of the 
acid should be removed from the cotton or neu- 
tralized before drying or there is danger that 
the material may be ruined. 

Action of Alkalies on Cotton, — Alkalies have 
a very different effect upon the cotton fiber from 
that of acids. Under ordinary conditions they 
are harmless. Dilute solutions of either the 
carbonated or caustic alkalies even at a boiling 
temperature have little if any injurious effect 
on the cotton fiber. 

Concentrated solutions of caustic alkalies 
have a peculiar effect upon cotton. If the fab- 
ric is immersed for two minutes in a strong 
solution of caustic soda and is then removed at 
once and washed free of the alkali, it is found 
to have shrunken greatly and to have become 
much closer and firmer in texture, the cloth 
having actually been strengthened by the 
shrinkage. Long-continued action in concen- 



COTTON 17 

trated alkaline solutions, however, will gradu- 
ally destroy the cloth. 

Bleaching Agents, — Formerly linens and cot- 
tons were bleached entirely by slow oxidation 
due to action of water, air, and sunlight, but 
various artificial bleaching stuffs have been dis- 
covered which hasten the process and save both 
time and labor. A common household bleach, 
chloride of lime (a ^^ bleaching powder") is a 
compound of chlorine (a gas) with calcium ox- 
ide. This powder has the power of destroying 
colors and stains at once but it also attacks the 
fibers of the material unless the action is neu- 
tralized by rinsing the cloth in some alkaline 
solution. Ordinary household ammonia, or hy- 
posulphate of soda will do this satisfactorily. 

The can in which the chloride of lime is kept 
should not be allowed to stand uncovered, as the 
chemical will rapidly lose its strength. 

Another bleaching agent much used for 
household purposes is Javelle water, which is 
similar to ^'bleaching powder'' except that soda 
replaces the lime. It is prepared by dissolving 
1 lb. of washing soda in a quart of boiling water, 
allowing it to cool. Then half a pound of 
bleaching powder is dissolved in two quarts of 



18 THE STUDY OP FABRICS 

cold water, allowed to settle, and the clear liquid 
added to the soda. The whole is strained off, 
bottled, and kept in a dark place. As in using 
bleaching powder, rinsing in a neutralizing solu- 
tion is necessary. Both should be kept in glass 
bottles having glass or rubber stoppers. 

Mercerized Cotton, — The process of merceri- 
zation is named after John Mercer who discov- 
ered in 1844 that cotton might be given a high 
degree of luster and at the same time be 
strengthened by subjecting it to the chemical 
action of caustic alkali and a strong tension to 
prevent contraction. 

When the cotton fiber is placed in the caustic 
solution it undergoes a peculiar physical modi- 
fication, changing from the flat, twisted, ribbon- 
like shape to a smooth, rounded, cylindrical fiber 
with thickened cell wall. The tensile strength is 
greatly increased, amounting in some cases to 
from 30% to 50%. 

Mercerization imparts a high luster to the 
cotton fiber, due partly to the fact that the fiber, 
being cylindrical, reflects the light instead of 
absorbing it, and to another condition which 
affects the lustrous appearance, the change in 
the cell elements. The substance becomes gela- 



COTTON 19 

tinous and translucent, thereby affecting the 
optical properties of the fiber and lessening the 
amount of light absorbed. Ordinarily the proc- 
ess of mercerization is not continued until every 




Cotton, Mercerized and Stretched, Showing Incom- 
plete Mercerization 



fiber is completely mercerized. The illustra- 
tion, which is typical, shows part of the fibers 
still containing a partial twist. 

Mercerized cotton is somewhat more reactive 
towards dyestuffs than other cottons, 



20 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

Yarns of ordinary grades of cotton cannot be 
mercerized successfully, and as the cost of pro- 
ducing high grade mercerized yarn is about 
three times that of the same quality of unmer- 
cerized cotton, the higher cost of the finished 
l^roduct may readily be understood. Long-sta- 
pled sea-island cotton and Egyptian varieties 
are usually selected for the manufacture of mer- 
cerized materials, as they are better able to 
withstand the tension necessary for the perfec- 
tion of the process than the short-stapled fibers. 

Cotton may be mercerized either in the yarn 
or in the cloth, although it is usually done in 
the yarn. 

Silk Finish. — Both mercerized and unmercer- 
ized cottons are often calendered to increase the 
luster of the material. The cloth is passed be- 
tween rollers, under heavy pressure, one roller 
being engraved with obliquely set lines (125- 
600 to an inch). The larger number of very 
fine parallel surfaces reflect the light producing 
a beautiful silk like luster. 

Unmercerized cotton which has been finished 
this way is no stronger than ordinary cotton. 
To distinguish between the mercerized material 
and goods which has been merely calendered 



COTTON 21 

place a piece of the material under the lowest 
power of the microscope and turn it backward 
and forward. Look for press lines on the fibers. 

A Test for Mercerized Cotton, — Wash the 
samples, rinse well, and when dry compare with 
a piece of the same which has not been washed. 
If the luster remains, the material was mercer- 
ized. The finish put on by sizing material, pres- 
sure, and calendering is removed by washing. 

Experiment.— Select a number of samples of 
cotton materials which have a lustrous finish 
and use the test given above to determine which 
are mercerized and which have simply been 
treated to make them appear mercerized. 

Dyeing. — Dyestuffs are classified in general 
as acid, basic, substantive, and mordant dyes. 
The acid dyes may be used to dye animal fibers 
directly — that is, without the use of a mordant. 
Basic dyes are used directly on animal fibers 
and may be used on cotton if tannin is used as 
a mordant. The substantive dyes will be ab- 
sorbed by both animal and vegetable fibers, 
although they are usually used on cotton. The 
mordant dyes require a metallic mordant for 
both animal and vegetable fibers. 

The word mordant comes from a word mean- 



22 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

ing * * to bite. " It is a substance which will unite 
with the fiber and also with the dye to be used. 

Silk and wool have both acid and basic prop- 
erties and, therefore, the acid and basic dyes 
may be used directly on these fibers. As cotton 
and linen are inactive chemically, these dyes will 
not unite with the vegetable fibers unless a mor- 
dant is used. This accounts for the fact that 
cotton and linen are more difficult to dye than 
wool or silk. 

Natural dyestuffs are no longer used com- 
mercially to any extent. The following are used 
occasionally: Madder for red, logwood with 
fustic for black, cutch for brown, and indigo 
for blue. Madder and indigo are no\v produced 
artificially instead of being obtained from their 
natural sources. This has reduced their cost 
materially. 

The usual process of dj^eing is, first, to treat 
the cotton goods with a mordant (various salts 
of aluminum, chromium, iron, tin, and copper), 
fixing it on the fiber by means of tannin or an 
alkali. The mordanted cloth is put into a dye 
bath and boiled one or more hours until the de- 
sired shade is obtained. The salts of aluminum 
are used as mordants for the light shades and 



^-^ 



COTTON 23 

iron for the dark ones. In general, chrommm 
mordants give fastest dyes. Aniline dyes, made 
from anilin, a coal-tar product, are largely used 
at the present time, and if care is taken in their 
use, prove satisfactory. The commercial dyes 
which may be purchased for home dyeing are 
derivatives of coal-tar products and good re- 
sults may be obtained if the directions are fol- 
lowed carefully. The colors are more perma- 
nent than those obtained with the natural dyes. 
Printing. — Block printing was first used, the 
design being engraved in relief on blocks of 
wood. These were dipped in the colored paste 
and applied to successive portions of the cloth 
by hand. These blocks are now replaced by en- 
graved copper rolls, the design being such that 
it is repeated once or a number of times in each 
revolution of the cylinder. There is a printing 
roll for each color of the design. Sometimes 
both the background and the design are printed 
on the cloth, but the more common process is 
for the design only to be printed on the cloth, 
which may be dyed afterwards. In the paste of 
the printed design there is some chemical which 
prevents the portions printed from taking the 
dye, consequently these remain white or a dif- 



}l 



24 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

ferent color as the case may be. This is called 
the *^ resist" process. Another process is to first 
dye the cloth and then print on some chemical 
which, when the calico is steamed, discharges 
the color. This is called the '^discharge" proc- 
ess. Sometimes this weakens the goods in many 
places where the color has been discharged. 
This accounts for the dropping away of dots 
and also the giving way of white stripes in 
printed materials. The color paste contains 
both the dye and the mordant. After calico has 
been printed it is steamed to develop and fix 
the color, washed to clear the whites, usually 
sized, then pressed and dried by passing over 
slowly revolving, steam heated drums. In gen- 
eral the colors in printed materials are not so 
fast to washing and sun as are those dyed in 
the piece or yarn. 

Common Cotton Materials 

Gingham. — Cotton dress goods woven of plain dyed 
yarn, usually in checks, plaids, or stripes 

Muslin. — White, firmly woven material suitable for 
underwear and sheeting 

Calico, — Material with a figured design printed on one 
side 



COTTON 25 

Cambric. — Fine material used for dresses, usually 
white, but sometimes printed on one side 

Batiste, — Fine dress material, either white or printed 

Dimity, — Sheer, fine material, corded len^hwise, 
usually, but sometimes both ways 

Sateen, — Cotton fabric with a glossy surface somewhat 
resembling satin 

Pique, — Heavy fabric, corded either lengthwise or 
crosswise, used for waists and suitings 

Mull, — Thin, white, wiry fabric used as a dress mate- 
rial 

Nainsook, — A soft, white, cotton fabric used for in- 
fant 's clothing, lingerie, dress goods, etc. 

Organdie. — A fine, sheer, wiry dress material, either 
in plain colors or printed designs 

Percale. — A firm mxaterial used for skirts and dresses, 
usually printed on one side 

Scrim. — An open weave used for curtains 

Corduroy, — A cotton material resembling velvet but 
woven with a ribbed effect 

Velveteen. — Cotton velvet which has a loose pile on 
the surface 

Testing for Fastness to Sunlight. — Cover one 
end of a sample of material with a piece of 
heavy cardboard and expose the uncovered end 
to the sunlight for a number of days, examining 
it in the shade to see if the exposed end has 
changed in color from that of the covered part. 
Note the number of days it takes to change the 
color. Fabrics that are but slightly changed at 



26 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

the end of a month are called '^fast/' ^'moder- 
ately fast'' colors are those but slightly faded 
in 14 days, and those which are more or less 
completely faded in 14 days are called ''fleet- 



incr." 



Testing for Fastness to Washing. — Fabrics 
should withstand the action of soap, the heat, 
and the mechanical friction necessary for laun- 
dering. To test the fabric wash it in a soap 
solution similar to that used in the household, 
not warmer than 131° F. Repeat several times, 
and if the color does not fade it is "fast" to 
w^ashing. 

Testing for Crocking, — Many dark colored 
cottons which have been poorly dyed discolor 
other garments or the skin. Materials may be 
tested easily by rubbing them briskly on white 
unstarched cotton fabric. 

Testing for Fastness to Perspiration, — The 
fabrics which come in contact w^ith the body are 
often weakened by perspiration unless a good 
resistant material is used. To test the fabric 
for resistance, place a sample in a bath of 25% 
to 40%: acetic acid warmed to the temperature 
of the body, 98.6° F. Dip the sample a number i 
of times and dry without rinsing between clean 



COTTON 27 

blotting papers. Note whether or not the color 
is affected. 

Testing for Percentage of SJirinJcage. — Pour 
boiling water over a sample and leave it im- 
mersed over night. Dry at a moderate tem- 
perature without stretching. Press. Measure 
before and after treatment. Try samples of 
lavender, pale blue, pink, green, and brown, 
to show: (a) Fastness to sunlight, (b) Fast- 
ness to laundering. 

Wearing Qualities Compared with Price. — 
Cotton, being cheapest, is not adulterated with 
any of the other fibers, but an inferior grade of 
material is often made to appear heavier by 
the addition of dressing. Starch, glue, dextrine, 
etc., are used, and they may add greatly to the 
weight of the cloth. The spaces between threads 
are filled and a good finish is given to the ma- 
terial, but after washing, the cloth loses both in 
weight and firmness. This dressing may be 
detected in thin fabrics by holding them up to 
the light, then the starch will show between the 
threads. It may also be detected by rubbing the 
material in the hands when it is freed from part 
of the dressing and the firmness of the cloth 
may be determined. Still another method of 



28 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

determining the amount of sizing present is that 
of washing a sample of the material thoroughly 
and comparing it with the original. 

If material is to give good service, the warp 
and weft threads must be in good proportion. 
Materials having some heavy threads, as dimi- 
ties, or having a much heavier warp than weft 
are apt to split owing to the unequal tension. 
Materials which have been on the market for 
some time may have become weakened by the 
action of the chemicals wiiich were used in the 
bleaching or in the sizing. 

The strength may be judged by the following 
test : Place the thumbs together and press them 
do^^^l hard on the material, holding the cloth 
tight underneath. Consider the amount of 
strain resisted. 

In choosing between two grades of the same 
type of material, consider the additional wear- 
ing qualities obtained for a slight additional 
cost. Often a piece of material costing two or 
three cents more will wear twice or three times 
as long as the cheaper material. This is not 
always true, however, as sometimes a large part 
of the price is represented in the novelty of 
weave, design, or color. Obtain three sets of 



COTTON 29 

samples of different types of cotton materials 
which illustrate the above, and study them care- 
fully. 

The firmness of the weave and the quality of 
the fiber are always important factors to con- 
sider. To judge the quality of fiber, untwist a 
thread of the cloth and notice the length of the 
separate fibers. A long fiber indicates strength 
and, therefore, good wearing qualities, other 
things being equal. 

Always consider width as well as price in 
comparing two pieces of material. The wider 
material will usually cut to better advantage, 
and may, therefore, be more economical. 

In purchasing dotted Swiss be sure to deter- 
mine whether the dots are embroidered or 
merely printed or pasted on. Printed dots are 
more likely to fade and those made of paste be- 
come discolored by ironing and wear off. 



CHAPTER II 
WOOL 

Wool.— The soft, curly covering of sheep and 
of similar animals, has been nsed from earliest 
times, and its production and value are increas- 
ing steadily. Unfortunately the production is 
not keeping pace with the increasing demand, as 
will be explained later. 

The great wool producing countries are Aus- 
tralia, South America, the United States, and 
South Africa. Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and 
Oregon produce the largest part of the wool 
raised in the United States. Australia is the 
largest producer of the finest wool, although 
Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia furnish 
a fine quality which is a close rival. 

The quality of the wool depends upon the 
breed of the sheep, feed, care, climate, and the 
part of the animal from which it comes. The 
best wool in soundness of fiber, softness, and 
evenness of length comes from the shoulders 

30 



WOOL 31 

and sides of the animal. The various kinds of 
wool used in commerce are named either from 
the breed of the sheep or the locality in which 
the sheep is raised, as : Australian wools, New 




Comparison of Different Varieties of Wool 

Zealand wools, Cashmere, Shropshiredown, and 
Merino wools. 

The wool fiber is composed of three parts 
which may be seen under the microscope : 

(a) Epidermis, or outer surface, which is 



32 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

composed of overlapping scales, similar to those 
on a pine cone. 

(b) Cortex, which consists of a layer of cel- 
lular fibrous substance, which gives the fiber 
its chief strength and elasticity. 

(c) Medulla, or marrow of the fiber. 

The scales give wool its peculiar felting 
property, due to the interlocking of the project- 
ing edges of the scales — the deeper the scales 
fit into one another, the closer becomes the 
structure of the material. This property is 
taken advantage of in the manufacture of such 
materials as broadcloth. It is also this prop- 
erty which necessitates extra care in the laun- 
dering of woolen materials to prevent shrink- 
age which is simply another name for the inter- 
locking of the scales. 

The difference between hair and wool is 
largely in this layer of horny scales. On hair 
they are much less marked, and often do not 
project at all at the edges. The distinction is 
sometimes made that hair is straight and wool 
is curly, or that hair is stiffer than wool; but 
here again the difference is sometimes greater 
between the extremes of wool or the extremes 



WOOL 33 

of hairs than between a given wool and a given 
hair. 

The amount of luster which wool has also de- 
pends on the scales. If the edges of the scales 
are rough and uneven, the fiber as a whole will 
not be so smooth and lustrous as a fiber in 
which the scales are more nearly regular and 
reflect the light evenly. The fiber from the An- 
gora goat, which has less prominent scales, has 
greater luster than the wool from most sheep, 
but there is also greater variation in different 
breeds of sheep. 

The length of the wool fiber varies from one 
to eight inches, depending upon its location on 
the animal and upon the breed. The wool 
fibers may be roughly classified as long-staple 
wools or ^Hops" from which worsteds are or- 
dinarily made, short-staple wools used in the 
manufacture of woolens, and the miscellaneous 
or carpet and blanket wools. 

This classification is based on the length, fine- 
ness, and felting qualities of the staples. 

The hygroscopicity of wool, the property of 

' absorbing water without feeling wet, is greater 

than that of any other textile fiber. It varies 



34 THE STUDY OP FABRICS 

in different wools from eight to fourteen per 
cent. 

In elasticity it is next to silk. This is the 
property which makes woolen materials keep 
their shape better than linen or cotton. 

"Wool is a poor conductor of both heat and 
electricity; therefore, it keeps the body evenly 
warm and prevents rapid cooling. It feels 
warm to the touch because it does not conduct 
the heat away from the body. Woolen shirts 
are worn by men working around furnaces be- 
cause the wool forms a blanket of air spaces 
which hold warmed air and moisture, thus pre- 
venting the extreme heat from reaching the 
body. 

The tensile strength varies so greatly that 
no definite statement can be made. 

Dilute acids have no appreciable effect on 
wool. Concentrated acids totally destroy it. 
With organic acids wool is usually reactive, 
readily absorbing oxalic, tartaric, acetic, and 
such acids. 

Wool is quite sensitive to alkalies, so much so 
that a 5% solution of potassium or sodium hy- 
droxide, at a boiling temperature, will, in fif- 
teen minutes, completely dissolve the fiber. 



WOOL 35 

The use on wool of a strong soap, which 
means a soap containing' a large amount of free 
alkali, increases its shrinkage, for it softens 
the fibers and causes the projecting scales to 
become more prominent, thereby inducing a 
greater interlocking of fibers, with the conse- 

[ quent thickening of the material and decrease in 
the size of the garment. Dilute solutions of 
borax, ammonia, or a neutral soap if used at a 
low temperature have little, if any, injurious 
effect. Another point to remember in the laun- 
dering of wool is to keep the temperature as 
nearly as possible the same throughout the 
washing and drying. The alternate expansion 

- and contraction of the scales caused by differ- 
ent temperatures increases the interlocking and, 
therefore, the shrinkage. 

"Wool is the most reactive of all the textile 
fibers to coloring matter. Consequently it may 

i be dyed easily and the colors are usually 
^^fast.'' 

Shearing in the United States is usually done 
by experts who begin work in Southern Cali- 

^ fornia, Texas and neighboring states about May 
and work on up through Wyoming, Montana, 



36 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

Idaho, Oregon, and then into Canada, in this 
way being busy most of the year. 

Most of the wool on the market comes in the 
form of fleece wool, the product of one year's 
growth. The fleeces are rolled in bundles as 
they come to the mill, and are sorted according 
to quality and length of fiber, the wool from 
the shoulders and sides being, usually, the choic^ 
est part of the fleece. After sorting, the wool 
is washed to remove the grease and dirt ; dried 
and oiled to render it soft ; burred and carbon- 
ized to remove seeds, leaves, and burrs; and 
blended, by which means a more even yarn is 
produced. After the wool is blended it comes 
out in a soft, fleecy condition, ready to be 
carded. 

The carding machine finishes the cleaning, 
separates and straightens the fibers, and deliv- 
ers the wool in soft strands called slivers. 

If the wool is to be used for w^orsted material 
it must be further straightened and have the 
short ends or ^^ noils" removed by a process 
called combing. This leaves only the good long 
fibers lying practically parallel to each other. 

The combing process is unnecessary in the 
manufacture of woolen materials as the vams 




A Pair op Hand Cards 
37 



38 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

are composed of short fibers which cross and 
are somewhat matted. 

The processes of drawing and spinning draw 
out and twist the long soft rolls until the thread 
is reduced to the size required. 

Before weaving, the warp yarn is sized by a 
starch preparation to enable the threads to 
withstand the friction due to the constant weav- 
ing back and forth of the weft thread. It is 
then placed on the loom, the warp running 
lengthwise. The filling thread, or weft, is 
wound on a bobbin, which is fastened in a shut- 
tle, allowing the thread to unwind as it is passed 
back and forth. As fast as the weft passes 
through between the warp threads, which are 
separated in different groups to form the pat- 
tern, it is beaten up tight against the preceding 
thread, thereby keeping the cloth firm and even. 

Dyeing is done either in the yarn or in the 
piece, the piece-dyed materials being of a single 
color, while wools dyed in the yarn allow va- 
rious combinations. 

When cloth comes from the loom, it is in an 
imperfect condition for use; knots tied in the 
thread are carefully drawn to the surface and 
clipped off; threads are woven in where any 



WOOL 



39 



have been left out; repairs are made if neces- 
sary. This part of the finishing must be done 
very carefully for worsted materials as the im- 
perfections will not be covered by a napped 
surface as in woolen materials. The beauty of 





1 


2 I 

3 



t 1. Woolen Goods as it Comes from the Loom. 2. Same, 
After Shrinking. 3. Teasel. 

woolen goods lies largely in the finish of the 
I cloth ; and of worsted goods, in the weave, while 
the object of fulling woolen materials is often 
to obliterate it entirely. The cloth is pressed 
over a heated roll to give it a permanent finish 
arid luster before it goes to the retailers. 

The finishing of a material such as broad- 
jdoth, where the weave is entirely covered by 






40 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

a napped surface, is an interesting process as 
it shows the severe treatment which is necessary 
to obtain the highly lustrous finish. This in 
turn throws light on the high price of good chif- 
fon broadcloth, as a good quality of wool must 
be used to withstand the treatment, and the ex- 
tra labor also adds to the cost. 

The cloth as it comes from the loom is loosely 
woven and much wider than desired when fin- 
ished. It is then churned in hot soap solutions 
to felt or shrink the material. This process is 
repeated until the desired result is obtained. 

Napping, which raises the ends of the fibers 
on the face of the cloth, is done by means of a 
w^ire teasel gig. The teasel, a seed receptacle 
of a vegetable, is about the shape of a pine cone, 
and it is interesting to note that no mechanical 
contrivance has ever been invented to equal it 
for the purpose. The nap which has been raised 
by the teasel is sheared or cut to a proper length 
by a machine which works like a lawn mower. 
The cloth is pressed, and, if a high luster is I 
desired, it may be necessary to repeat the nap- 
ping and shearing before it is wound upon cop- 
per cylinders and steam is forced through it at \ 
a high pressure. 



^ 




WooiiEN Yarn ITntvvlsted A Worsted Yarn Untwisted 

41 



42 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

The difference between worsteds and woolens 
is principally that in the threads or yarns from 
which worsteds are made the fibers of the wool 
lie parallel to one another, combed wool being 
used from which the short fibers have been re- 
moved; and woolens are made from yarns in 
which the fibers cross and are matted and inter- 
mixed. When finished, the effect of worsteds 
and woolens is materially different. Upon ex- 
amination it will be found that a worsted thread 
resembles a wire in evenness, while the woolen 
thread is uneven and irregular. 

A worsted fabric when finished has a clear, 
bright, well-defined pattern, and seems close and 
firmly woven; while woolen cloths are softer, 
they are more elastic, the colors are more 
blended, the threads are not so easily distin- 
guishable, and there is a duller effect in general. 

Owing to the rapidly changing fashions to- 
day, dress materials are frequently cast aside 
when only partially worn. This naturally 
greatly increases the demand for new fabrics 
and, therefore, for raw wool. 

Statistics from 1909 give approximately 220,- 
000,000 lbs. as the amount of new wool, freed 
from grease, used in the United States. Later 



a 



WOOL 43 

figures show that about 250,000,000 lbs. are used 
a year at the present time. Estimating the 
present population as about 90,000,000 the 
amount of raw wool per capita is less than three 
pounds. Considering the waste in manufacture 
(100 lbs. of raw wool being required for 85 lbs. 
of cloth), and also the proportion which must 
be used for blankets, carpets, rugs, felts, and 
upholstery, it is apparent that the supply of 
new wool is not equal to the demand. To make 
up for this shortage, shoddy and cotton have 
come into general use. 

Shoddy is the term which has come to be ap- 
plied to all reclaimed wool which has already 
served one or more periods of usefulness. The 
term is unfortunate as it suggests only decep- 
tion, sham., and fraud. No objection is raised 
to the use of other waste product, so why should 
there be in this case? The only just cause for 
complaint is found in the abuse rather than the 
use of the so-called shoddy. 

The wool is reclaimed from wool rags, tail- 
ors' clippings, and scraps of various kinds. 
These are dusted, cleaned, and then torn apart 
by machines designed especially for that pur- 
pose. If any cotton is present, the mass is 



44 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

treated with dilute acid to decompose the veg- 
etable matter, leaving only the wool. This is 
w^ashed, dried, and carded, preparing it for 
spinning a second time. The quality of the 
shoddy depends upon the quality and value of 
the material from which it is made. The best 
quality is obtained from knitted goods and wor- 
sted materials, if good wool was used in the 
first place. To be sure, it is not so strong as it 
was originally. The strain undergone in the 
various processes thrpugh which it has passed 
has weakened the fibers to a greater or lesser 
degree. Yet in many cases it is not ^Svorn out" 
by any means. The much felted woolen ma- 
terials give the short inferior fibers. It has 
been said that, ^^ Anything with two ends may be 
spun." When we find fibers not more than a 
fourth of an inch in length we realize the truth 
of that statement and wish the manufacturers 
were a little less clever. These short fibers soon 
become loosened or wear off, leaving the gar- 
ment '^threadbare" as we say. 

The better quality may contain good long 
fibers ready to do good service again. The 
processes through which it has gone thoroughly 
sterilize the material, so there is no possible 



WOOL 



45 





Poor Quality Shoddy 




Better Quality Shoddy 



46 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

danger of contamination. We may not like the 
idea of wearing clothes made from material 
which has been used by someone else, but the 
prejudice is not justified, as the use of these re- 
claimed materials has clothed many people 
much more cheaply and warmly than would oth- 
erwise be possible. In fact, it is the only way 
in which the insufficient supply of new wool may 
be pieced out and made to go around. Should 
this material be wasted, many persons would be 
unable to afford proper clothing, as it is diffi- 
cult to estimate what the i^rice of wool would be. 
To quote from an article in a trade journal: 
^^This is no excuse for dishonesty, false labeling 
or misrepresentation. Good, honest, sound, and 
well wearing cloths can be made, are made, and 
sold on their merits at prices 'within the reach 
of air and all that is needed is that they may 
be represented for what they are, in the name of 
common honesty." 

Because there will always be unscrupulous 
manufacturers who will misrepresent their 
goods, there should be pure textile laws requir- 
ing proper labeling of all materials. A copy 
of one of the specifications used by the War De- 
partment in ordering materials for the army 



WOOL 47 

gives us an idea of textile standards. Until such 
laws are secured we must learn to judge for 
ourselves or expect to be cheated occasionally. 
As a usual thing, when paying a reasonable 
price for wool materials in a reputable store, 
good value may be expected. There are excep- 
tions, however, which will be cited later. 

Cotton is also used quite largely in the man- 
ufacture of woolen and worsted materials to 
help make up for the shortage in wool. The cot- 
ton is mixed with the wool in the following 
ways: 

(a) Cotton combed with the wool and spun 
together. 

(b) Cotton covered with wool so that the 
cotton is not visible. 

(c) Cotton used alone as the warp or weft 
threads, usually the former. 

(d) Cotton threads twisted in with the wool. 

Specifications of War Department 

War Department 

Office of the Quartermaster-General. 

Specifications for olive drab worsted kersey, 16-ounce 

Wool. — For warp and filHng: To be American, 
shorn from live sheep, free from kemp, of not lower 



48 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

grade than high half-blood, staple to be of good char- 
acter, sound, true and well conditioned, possessing in 
addition all the necessary qualities to produce the 
hereinafter-described requirements. The admixture 
of wastes, reworked wools, vegetable fibers, or other 
imjnirities is prohibited. (Broken sliver from the 
combs and drawing frames made at the time this yarn 
is being manufactured not to be considered waste.) 

Color. — To be a mixture of an olive drab shade, as 
represented by the sealed standard sample. The va- 
rious colors required to form this mixture may be 
dyed in the wool, slubbing, or top, as desired, and to 
be reasonably clean before mixing. The colors must 
be sufficiently fast to withstand milling, perspiration, 
and climatic influences, such as sunlight, air, and ex- 
posure incident to the military service. 

Tests. — All deliveries shall be subjected to the fol- 
lowing official tests, chemical and otherwise : 

(a) Boiling for ten minutes in a solution composed 
of 80 grains of neutral soap to one pint of water. 

(b) Boiling for ten minutes in a solution containing 
10 grains of dry carbonate of soda to one pint of 
water. 

(c) To stand an exposure to the weather (roof 
test) for thirty days. 

(d) Soak for twenty-four hours in lactic acid, spe- 
cific gravity, 1.21 U. S. P. Temperature about 70° F. 

(e) Soak for twenty-four hours in a solution com- 
posed of three drams (avoirdupois) of citric acid to 
two fluid ounces of water. Temperature about 70° F. 

To judge results correctly the specimens that have 
been subjected to the above acid test must be washed 



WOOL 49 

with soap in warm water. In all these tests no greater 
changes of color must take place than would be shown 
under similar tests made on the sealed standard 
sample. 

The regulation size of the above samples shall be six 
(6) by four (4) inches. In making tests *^d" and 
**e" the samples shall be placed in a tray or vessel of 
such a character that will allow them to lie flat within, 
so that they may be completely immersed in their re- 
spective solutions. 

Width. — To be not less than fifty-four (54) nor 
more than, fifty-six (56) inches wide independent of 
selvages. 

Weave, — To be a four harness, two-up and two- 
down weave, as is the sealed standard sample. 

Threads, — Warp to contain not less than 3,780 ends 
of single spun (combed) warp twist yarn. 

Filling. — To contain not less than sixty-two picks of 
single worsted spun yarn per inch. Should an occa- 
sional piece (not more than one in ten of each deliv- 
ery) be found to meet specification requirements in all 
other respects, but to count not lower than fifty-nine 
picks, it shall be acceptable. 

Weight. — To weigh not less than sixteen ounces per 
linear yard. Pieces weighing less than sixteen ounces 
per linear yard sliall be rejected, unless when sub- 
jected to a conditioned or dry-fiber test, the weight 
thus found with 11 per cent added (for normal re- 
gain of moisture allowable) will come up to over six- 
teen ounces. At the discretion of the contracting offi- 
cer, pieces weighing sixteen ounces and over may be 
conditioned, and if found to weigh less than fourteen 



50 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

and five-tenths ounces when the weight becomes con- 
stant in the conditioning oven, they shall be rejected. 

Strength. — To be capable of sustaining a strain of 
sixty pounds to the inch warp-way, and fifty-five 
pounds to the inch filling-way. The strength test to 
be made on a dynamometer, great care being exercised 
to see that the material is placed in the jaws of the 
same at exactly right angles to the opposite system 
of threads. Should an occasional piece on delivery 
(not more than one in ten), practically perfect in all 
other respects, show not more than three pounds less 
breaking strain in the warp, and not more than two 
pounds less breaking strain in the filling, it shall be 
acceptable. 

Finish, — To be well milled, thoroughly cleaned, free 
from crocking, moderately shorn, and like or equal 
in all respects of finish to the sealed standard sample. 

Adopted October 31, 1906. 

C. F. Humphrey, 
Quartermaster-General, U. S. Army. 

Note. — Samples of wool (warp and filling) in the 
clean state, also samples of wools after properly mixed 
to produce shade (warp and filling), as well as a skein 
of not less than 120 yards of each yarn (warp and 
filling) shall be delivered to the contracting officer 
with the first delivery of goods, and with each 5,000 
yards. 

By direction of the Quartermaster-General, the 
articles to be furnished under these specifications 
shall, in all points not covered by these specifications, 
be like and equal to the standard sample in all re- 
spects. 



CHAPTER III 

TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS 

During the last century industrial conditions 
have changed materially. In the early days the 
cloth was manufactured in the home. There 
was no question of adulteration then. With the 
introduction of the factory system came keen 
competition, with the result that a piece of ' ' all 
wool" cloth may be one-half or three-fourths 
cotton. The field of textile knowledge has 
grown remarkably, while the knowledge pos- 
sessed by women concerning textile fabrics has 
decreased. The natural result has been that 
women have come to depend on the salesman 
for information concerning the material about 
to be purchased. Various experiences have led 
to the belief that the salesmen are usually hon- 
est but often most woefully ignorant. They 
should be more intelligent concerning the mate- 
rials offered for sale ; but since they are not it 
devolves upon the shopper to acquire the knowl- 

51 



52 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

edge wliich will make her competent to judge 
for herself. 

^^All wool and a yard wide'' has come to be 
synonymous with good quality in the minds of 
manj\ That is a misconception, as a material 
may be ''all wool and a yard and a half wide'' 
and a poor material at the same time. The 
quality of the wool and the weave of the mate- 
rial are fully as important as the fact of its be- 
ing all wool. ''Pure dye" was thought by a 
tailor of more than ordinary intelligence to in- 
dicate purity of the fabrics. He was amazed 
when shown the adulteration in his "pure dye" 
materials. These illustrations show that these 
similar phrases cannot be depended upon as an 
indication of quality. 

To judge of the firmness of the weave, hold 
the material up to the light. If the light shines 
through, it indicates a loose and open w^eave 
unable to withstand strain. The tensile strength 
test given below should also be used in this con- 
nection. The "feel" of the wool, to be ac- 
quired by practice, tells much in regard to qual- 
ity. Notice carefully the ditference in the 
"feel" of various qualities of blue serges. 
Threads should be unraveled and the length of 



TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS 53 

the separate fibers noted. Long fibers usually 
indicate a good quality of wool and extremely 
short ones indicate shoddy. 

Tensile Strength. — The warp yarn in a mate- 
rial is always more tightly twisted and stronger 
than the weft or filling yarn. This is necessary 
because of the greater strain on the warp in 
wearing. In cheap materials, frequently, there 
is more difference than is necessary between the 
strength of the warp and weft yarns. This may 
be detected by exposing the warp and weft 
threads separately. When considerable differ- 
ence is found it is an indication of poor wear- 
ing quality, as the weft threads will not be able 
to stand the strain of the warp. 

To test the tensile strength, place the thumbs 
together and press them down hard on the ma- 
terial, holding the cloth tight underneath. Do 
the threads separate or break more easily in 
one direction than the other? 

If the threads can be separated by the thumbs 
in this way, the material will not give good serv- 
ice if subjected to hard wear. 

It is usually found economical in the end to 
})uy good material. Tlie extra expenditure of 
$.25 or $.50 a yard will amount to little in the 



54 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

cost of a garment, yet it may double or treble 
its value. In the case of a garment which will 
be worn only a few times, because of the rapidly 
changing styles, a cheaper material may serve 
the purpose fully as well. The use to which the 
garment is to be put should always be consid- 
ered when purchasing the material. If service 
is an important item, remember that pennies 
saved may mean dollars lost. 

Appearance and feeling can no longer be 
trusted absolutely, but the trained hand and 
eye may do much in judging of the quality of 
materials. Woven fabrics made of wool should 
be soft when gathered up in the hand, and 
should spring back when the hold is loosened. 

Wool should feel warm and springy. There 
is a great difference in the ^^feeP' of different 
qualities of wool. The difference is hard to 
describe, but can easily be detected with prac- 
tice. 

Take a small piece of wool material and ex- 
pose the warp and weft threads separately. 
After some practice the cotton can be quite 
readily detected unless it is covered with wool, 
as is often the case. Wool threads are more 



TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS 55 

curly and elastic than cotton. White wool usu- 
ally has a creamy tint while cotton, is dead white. 
Cheap shepherd checked materials usually 
contain some cotton. The warp may be cotton 
and the weft all or part wool. Such materials 
clearly show the difference between the appear- 




Warp and Weft Threads Exposed Separately 



ance of wool and cotton, especially of white wool 
and cotton. 

In a plain colored material the cotton may 
sometimes be detected by the difference in the 
way the threads have taken the dye. It is al- 
most impossible to dye cotton and wool exactly 
the same color. For this reason cotton is used 
more often in materials of mixed colors. 



5G THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

Bxirning to Detect Cotton, — This is the most 
useful in determining whether certain threads 
are wool or cotton. If cotton and wool have 
been spun together, this test is not reliable, al- 
though something may be learned if the yarn 
is unraveled so that the fibers may be burned 
separately. Cotton burns quickly; leaving a 
small amount of ash and no perceptible odor. 
Wool burns slowlj^, leaving a black ash in the 
form of a ball at the edge of the flame. The 
odor of burning wool is that characteristic of 
burning bones or feathers. 

Experiment. — Select a number of materials 
which it is thought may contain cotton. Burn 
the warp and weft threads and threads of dif- 
ferent colors separately. If a thread when 
burned gives off no odor of burning wool, it may 
be taken as a strong indication that it is all cot- 
ton. However, the odor of burning wool does 
not indicate that the thread is all wool. 

Chemical Test for Any Mixed Cotton and 
Wool Fabric. — Boil a sample for 15 minutes in 
a 5% solution of potassium hydroxide. If it is 
all wool, the entire piece will be destroyed; if 
it is mixed with cotton, the cotton will be left 
and the wool destroyed. Should there be a res- 




' ^^~-*£:'i 1 '\ I 



-™|f- 



iJniHIlPHHH 
11 ■■■!■!■■■ 



IgipBl^glg 




Jlirt-T-rf^ff 



Original Residue 

54 inches wide — $1.25 per yard 









m 



mmm 



Original Residue 

86 inolios wide — 50 cents per ynrd 

Materials Before and After Botltng in the Lye 

Solution 

57 



58 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

idue, it must be thoroughly washed, first in 
acidulated water (vinegar in water may be 
used), then in clear water and dried on blotting 
paper. This residue represents the cotton in 
the cloth. If mixed with wool in spinning, an 
open material will be left ; if the warp is made 
of cotton it alone will remain. The weft will 
be destroyed. 

In phice of the potassium hydroxide (KOH.) 
which is the alkali used in the laboratory, ordi- 
nary household lye may be used. From one to 
two level teaspoons of lye to one pint of water 
should be used. (The lye becomes weakened 
on exposure to the air.) A small sample of the 
cloth to be tested should be placed in a granite 
dish, well covered with the solution and allowed 
to boil gently to prevent rapid evaporation and 
consequently strengthening of the solution. 
The use of a granite dish is emphasized as the 
alkali will act on some metals, especially alumi- 
num. Five minutes at the boiling point will be 
sufficient when using the lye as given above. 

The following materials may be tested and 
results of the tests noted, always considering 
mdth and price of sample : 




Original Residue 

54 inches wide — $1.25 per yard 





Original Residue 

54 inches wide — $5 per yard 

Materials Before and After Boiling in the Lye 
Solution 



59 



60 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

2 pieces of white flannel, 

2 pieces of serge, 

2 pieces of shepherd check (black and 
white), 

2 pieces of novelty goods (gray or tan mix- 
ture), 

1 piece of broadcloth or a similar material, 

2 pieces of any materials in which you are 

especially interested. 




Materials Before and After Boiling in the Lye 
Solution 

It Avill be found helpful to study the sample 
before using the alkali test, and to form some 
judgment. After the test compare conclusions. 

Test one at a time, but the same solution may 
be used. Add water to replace what evaporates, 
and if testing many at one time add some fresh 
solution. 

The relation of cotton to wool is often plainly 
shown by the form in which the cotton is left. 



TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS 61 

If a piece of woven fabric remains we know 
that either wool was mixed with the cotton in 
the yarn before weaving or that wool was blown 
into the cloth mechanically during the felting 
process and finished over to give the appearance 
of woolen material. Cheap eiderdowns are 
often made in this way. Sometimes the warp 
is cotton and the weft wool. (A sample of shep- 
herd check showed a cotton warp with every 
other check filled in by cotton weft, therefore 
practically one-fonrth wool.) 

Nitric Acid Test. {Note. — This test may only 
( be used to advantage on white material.) Sep- 
arately expose the warp and weft threads of a 
small piece of material. Dip in nitric acid and 
then rinse thoroughly in running water. Wool 
assumes a yellow color, while cotton remains 
white. The yellow color is due to the formation 
of xanthoproteic acid. If entire cotton threads 
have been used, this test shows them up very 
readily. 

A piece of cheap white eiderdo^vn treated in 
this way showed a few wool fibers on the sur- 
face, while the body of the material and much of 
the surface remained white. 

A high power microscope affords a very sim- 



62 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

pie method of distingnishing between wool and 
cotton. (Any high school doing laboratory 
work in zoology or physiology should have such 
microscopes.) 

The following indicate the presence of 
shoddy : 

Very short fibers, 
Fibers of various colors, 
Lack of uniformity in size and general char- 
acter of the scales, 
Structure, 

Ends broken and uneven, 
Scales missing on parts of the fiber. 

The adulteration of a worsted cloth is more 
easily detected than of a woolen, as the entire 
thread is usually replaced by a similar one of 
cotton. There are pure wool cloths made of 
*^ Virgin wool" and nothing else. The great 
family of serges, worsted cheviots, and certain 
white flannels contain only fleece wool. This 
must be understood to refer to good quality ma- 
terials demanding a fair price. It still remains 
a fact, however, that many fabrics used for 
clothing contain other materials than wool f resli 
from the sheep shearer, in many cases without 



TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS 63 

I detriment and in some cases with positive ad- 
vantage. 

If the shoddy is of fairly good quality, and 
especially if mixed with some good new wool, 
the resulting fabric may look very well and 
give good service. 

For a garment which must be laundered fre- 
quently the addition of some cotton will help to 
prevent shrinkage and perhaps add usefulness 
to the garment. If it is represented as being 
part cotton and sold for a reasonable price, no 
objection can be raised. 

Several pieces of imported Viyella flannel, 
sold as all wool and non-shrinkable, when tested 
were found to contain 50 per cent of cotton. 
The cotton made it fairly non-shrinkable, as 
advertised, and increased its value for men's 
shirts and ladies' shirtwaists, but it was decep- 
tive and $.75 a yard was too much to pay for 
a material 30 inches wide containing so much 
cotton. The same could be said of the only piece 
of so-called ^^all wool" white flannel, suitable 
for infants' clothes, which was to be had in a 
liigh class store. We are not objecting, there- 
fore, to the use of cotton, but to paying wool 



64 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

prices for cotton, and to being sold half cotton 
as all wool. 

Tests for Fastness to Dyes, Crocking, mid 
Fading. — A simple and practical test for crock- 
ing is to rub the material with a soft white 
cloth which has been slightly moistened. If any 
color comes off on the white cloth, the material 
will crock. 

To test fastness to light, the sample to be 
tested is placed in a suitable frame in such a 
manner that only a part is exposed. The frame 
is then placed in such a position that it receives 
as strong sunlight as possible. A window with 
southern exposure is a good location in which 
to hang the frame containing the samples. At 
the end of one week's exposure the samples are 
examined, and note is made of those w^hich 
show any appreciable fading. These are to be 
classified as not fast. At the end of the second 
week another examination is made and those 
samples noted which show an appreciable fad- 
ing. These are to be classified as fairly fast. At 
the end of four weeks the samples are once more 
examined, and the colors fading in this period 
are noted and classified as fast. The samples 



TESTS FOR WOOLEN MATERIALS 65 

which show no fading at the end of four weeks 
are classified as very fast. 

The samples may be partly covered with black 
paper, fastened securely to a piece of wood, and 
exposed to the light as suggested above. 

Test eight samples, varying in color and 
price, for crocking and fastness to light. 



CHAPTER IV 

SILK 

The silk industry is supposed to have origi- 
nated in China ahout 2,700 B. C, the art being 
known only to the royal family for a long time. 
But gradually the knowledge spread and it soon 
became an important industry in China. Later 
it became knowm to the people of Japan, and 
slowly it spread through Central Asia, Persia, 
Arabia, Spain, Sicily, and along the African 
coast. Silk culture w^as practiced in Italy in the 
12th century, and in France the following cen- 
tury. Most of the silk of commerce is obtained 
from the cocoons of a certain kind of caterpillar 
called ^^Bombyx mori," or mulberry silkworm 
which feeds (as the name implies) upon leaves 
of the mulberry tree. There are other varieties 
of silkworm which cannot be cultivated; these 
are called wild silkworms. They produce an 
inferior grade of silk called ^Hussah." From 
this wild silk is manufactured the pongee silks 

66 



SILK 67 

of commerce. Most of the raw silk on the mar- 
ket is produced in China, Japan, France, and 

Italy. 

Throughout the succession of changes which 
take place in the insect, the greatest care has 




Silkworm Culture 

to be exercised in regard to temperature, quiet, 
and food. After the moth lays the eggs they are 
collected and kept cool until time for incubation, 
which process takes place in heated compart- 
ments where the temperature is carefully regu- 
lated. The period of incubation lasts about 
thirty days and then the worms hatch out as 



68 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

tiny little tilings no larger than the head of a 
pin. The growth and development of the worm 
proceeds rapidly. Its food is chopped mulberry 
leaves. There are four molting stages, at each 
of which the worm sheds his old skin, and 
emerges with a new one. This is caused by the 
body growing faster than the skin. At the 
molting time the worm ceases eating and re- 
mains in a torpid state for a couple of days, 
rests a short time to regain strength, and then 
begins eating with renewed vigor. After the 
fourth and last molt the worm is ly^ inches long, 
but, in the few days remaining before it spins 
its cocoon, it grows to 3 inches in length. As 
soon as it has attained its full growth, which 
seldom exceeds 3 inches, it is ready to spin its 
cocoon. It stops eating, shrinks nearly an inch 
in length, loses in weight, turns pale in color, 
and seeks a place to which it can attach the co- 
coon. The web which it forms is composed of 
a secretion exuded from two glands in the body, 
which unite into one common exit tube below 
the mouth, where also exudes another secretion 
which cements the two threads together. The 
double silk fiber is called ^'fibroin," and the 
silk glue is called ^^sericin." This gum which 



SILK 69 

cements the fibers together hardens upon con- 
tact with the air. 

The worm forces the silk fiber out by contract- 
ing his body, turning his head from side to side 
and throwing the fiber around himself in figure 
eight loops, until layer after layer, the cocoon 
is gradually completed — a process which re- 
quires about three days. The cocoon is ovoid 
in shape and is composed of one continuous 
thread which is 400 to 1300 yards long. After 
the cocoon is finished the worm passes from the 
form of a caterpillar into a chrysalis, from 
which it rapidly develops into a moth. Unless 
the chrysalis is killed before the moth has devel- 
oped, the cocoon will be pierced and the thread 
broken, so live steam is applied, which kills the 
chrysalis^ and the silk can then be reeled off at 
any time. 

The life cycle lasts about 55 days on the aver- 
age: (a) 30 to 40 days as larva; (b) 15 to 20 
days as chrysalis; (c) 6 to 12 days as moth. A 
moth lays about 700 eggs in three days, 30,000 
eggs equalling 1 oz. 

Silk Reeling'. — Silk reeling is accomplished 
by soaking the cocoons in warm water to soften 
the gum and then carefully unwinding the fibers, 



70 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

twisting several together, according to the size 
of thread desired, and winding it into skeins. 
These skeins are put into canvas bags and 
soaked over night in warm soapsuds to further 
soften the g-um which has stuck the fibers to- 
gether. Then the}^ are hung across poles in a 
steam heated room and dried. Following this 
the silk is wound upon bobbins and spun into 
thread. 

The waste silk from the reeling is mixed with 
that from the outer part of the cocoons, known 
as ^^ floss," and is subsequently spun into what 
is called spun silk. It is treated as a bundle 
of fine fibers, like wool or cotton, and is spun 
by textile machinery that is especially adapted 
to it. 

Silk Dyeing.— Silk is dyed either in the yam 
or in the piece. If dyed in the yarn, the gaim is 
removed by soaking in boiling soap and water, 
then the yarn is washed in cold w^ater. At this 
point w^eighting is often put in — tin, iron, or 
other mineral salts being absorbed by the fiber. 
Sometimes there is more weighting than silk, 
for silk has the peculiar property of being able 
to absorb certain minerals. Because of this they 
are much used to deceive the buyer into paying a 




Reeled and Waste Silk 
71 



72 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

higher price for silk than it is worth, as weight- 
ing makes silk both weak and tender, and infe- 
rior grades are apt to be nsed. Silk will take uj) 
50 to 200 7r of weighting without arousing 
much suspicion. The silk is dyed, the luster re- 
stored, and it is then ready for weaving, after 
which the material is singed to remove loose 
fibers, straightened, and sized with starch or 
glue to stiffen it. 

Since 1624 several attempts have been made 
to rear silkworms in America. All have met 
with failure because of climatic or labor condi- 
tions. In some cases the mulberry trees were 
injured by early frosts and in all cases the low 
cost of labor in Europe offered a competition 
that it has been impossible to meet. It is inter- 
esting to note that the original Cheney Bros., 
well-known silk manufacturers, made an at- 
tempt to raise silkworms in South Manchester, 
Conn. Some of the mulberry trees, planted at 
that time, are still standing. Importing the raw 
material and manufacturing it in the United 
States has been found to be the best business 
proposition. There are about 700 establish- 
ments for the manufacture of silk in the United 
States. Paterson, N. J., is the silk city of Amer- 



SILK 



73 



ica, having more than 300 mills and employing 
40,000 men and women. The manufactured silk 
that is imported now is confined to the costliest 
fabrics in broad silks, to fashionable novelties, 
and to church vestments and specialties not 
suitable for mechanical weaving. 

The following is a table from ^^ Shelter & 
Clothing" by Kinne & Cooley: 

Common Silk Materials 



Name 


Usual 
Width 


Usual 
Price 


Description 


Bengaline 


18 to 22 in. 


$.75 


Used for dress goods and 
trimmings. Effect of 
rounded silk cord Hke 
poplin. Made in all silk 
or with wool cord of 
woof covered with silk 
warp. 


Brocaded Satin. . 


24 in. 


$1 up 


Beautiful fabrics of Jac- 
quard design. Slightly 
raised from surface. 
Dress goods, trinunings, 
and furniture coverings. 


Chiffon 


46 in. 


$.75 to 


Used for dress goods, veils, 
millinery, and trim- 






$2 








mings. A thin, gauzy, 








light fabric of plain 








colors generally. Fin- 








ished soft or with dress- 








ing. 


China Silk 


24 in. 


$1 


Name used for plain hand- 
woven silks of plain 



74 



THE STUDY OF FABRICS 



Name 


Usual 
Width 


Usual 
Price 


Description 








weave in China. Dis- 








tinguished by irregular 








threads and softness. 








Used for waists, dresses, 








underwear. Very du- 








rable. 


Crepe de Chine. . 


22 in. 


$.75 up 


Used for dress goods. 
Plain color or printed. 
Smoother surface than 
most crepes. Soft and 
lustrous. Plain weave. 
Effect produced by right 
and left twisting of warp 
threads. 


Foulard 


24 in. 


S.75 up 


Dress goods of printed or 
woven design. Name in 
French, ''handkerchief," 
for which originally 
used. 


Habutai 


27 in. 


$.60 to 


Woven in gum. Boiled and 






$2 


finished after weaving. 


Moire 


22 in. 


$2 


A watered effect produced 
by pressing between 














stamped rollers on gros- 








grain silk. Used for 








dresses and trimmings. 


Louisine 


20 in. 


$.85 to 


A plain, durable silk, soft. 






$1.50 


glossy texture, shghtly 
twilled in effect. Used 
for dress goods and 
trimmings. 


Maline 


27 in. 


$.25 to 


A soft, thin, gauzy fabric. 






$.50 


Similar to net. 


Mousseline de Soie 


45 in. 


$.50 up 


A thin, gauzy fabric with 
more starch in finish 
than soft chiffon. Used 



SILK 



75 



Name 


Usual 
Width 


Usual 
Price 


Description 








for trimmings and dress 








goods. 


Peau de Sole 


21 in. 


$.75 to 


A plain, colored, reversible 






$1.50 


silk in good quality. A 
heavy, soft-finished silk. 
Used for dress goods 
and trimmings. 


Pongee 


27 in. 


$1 Up 


A soft, unbleached, wash- 




able silk, ecru in color. 








Woven from silk of wild 








silkworm. Originated in 








China. Hand woven. 








Used for dress goods, 








coats, etc. 


Plush 


24 in. 


$3 


A long, shaggy fabric of 




velvet class. Woven and 








pile cut. Used for dress 








trimming, furniture cov- 








ering, draperies, etc. 


Rajah 


36 to 54 in. 


$.60 to 

$2 


A rough silk, plain weave 




of irregular threads. 








Not very durable. Used 








for dresses and coats. 


Satin 


21 to 54 in. 


$1 to 
$10 


A very old weave with 




much of woof on surface 








to give smooth finish. 








Made in all grades and 








combined with linen and 








cotton. Used for many 








purposes, box making, 








fans. Better qualities 








for fine gowns. 


Skinner's Satin. . 


36 in. 


$1 .25 


Used for lining. 


Taffeta 


21 in. up 


$.()0 to 


A thin, glossy silk of 
])lain texture. Same on 




$2 








both sides. Plain col- 



76 



THE STUDY OF FABRICS 



Name 



Tulle. 



Velvet. 



Usual 
Width 



3 yd. wide 



18 to 42 in. 



Usual 
Price 



$.75 to 
$2.25 

$4 to $20 



Description 



ors. Made also with 
printed and woven fig- 
ures. Used for gowns, 
petticoats, linings. Does 
not wear well unless 
good quality and small 
per cent of weighting. 

A kind of silk net of open 
mesh. Used for neck- 
wear, veiling, etc. 

Used for handsome gowns 
and trimmings. Woven 
and cut to form pile. 
Made also of cotton or 
linen in combination. 



Physical and Chemical Characteristics of 
Silk Fiber 

Physical. — Under the microscope the silk fi- 
ber appears as a smooth, structureless filament, 
regular in diameter and transparent. One strik- 
ing characteristic of silk is its high luster, 
which, however, only appears after the silk has 
been scoured to remove the silk gum. Dyeing 
and mordanting also affect the luster more or 
less, especially when silk is heavily weighted, 



SILK 77 

and, therefore, after dyeing, silk usually goes 
through a lustering operation in which the 
hanks are stretched strongly by twisting and at 
the same time steaming under pressure. By 
this process much of the luster is restored. 

Eaw silk will absorb as much as 30% of its 
weight in moisture and still appear dry. This 
property is called hygroscopicity, and because 
of it the amount of moisture in the silk has to 
be determined at the time of sale and allowances 
have to be made for it. The amount legally 
permitted is 11%. 

Another property of silk is that of being a 
poor conductor of electricity. It is, therefore, 
readily electrified by friction. Silk is the 
strongest fiber known, said to almost equal the 
tensile strength of iron wire of equal diameter. 
It is also extremely elastic, raw silk stretching 
from 15% to 20% its original length in the dry 
state before breaking. Weighting of silk causes 
a decrease in both elasticity and strength. 

A property which is peculiar in silk is its 
^^ scroop" — the crackling sound it makes when 
rubbed or squeezed. This is the cause of the 
rustle which characterizes most silk materials^ 



78 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

altlioiigli weave influences the degree to a large 
extent. 

Chemical. — As has been mentioned before, 
the silkworm lias two sets of glands, one of 
which secretes the fibroin or silk fiber, and the 
other set secretes the sericin or silk glue which 
coats the fibers and cements them together. Fi- 
broin composes about % to % of the silk secre- 
tion, the rest being composed of the sericin. As 
soon as the two fibroin fluids come into contact 
with the air they solidify, and coming into con- 
tact with each other at the moment of discharge, 
they are coated with the silk glue and firmly 
cemented together. The sericin is yellow in 
color and is soluble in hot water, hot soap, and 
alkaline solution. The silk is worked in a soap 
solution at a temperature of 203 "^ F., losing 
from 20% to 30% in weight and becoming soft 
and glossy. In regard to many of its chemical 
reactions silk is similar to wool. It can stand a 
high temperature, 230° F., without decomposi- 
tion. It readily absorbs dilute acids, and has 
a strong affinity for tannic acid, which fact is 
used in -dyeing and mordanting. It readily ab- 
sorbs sugar, which is sometimes utilized in 
weighting light colored silks. Silk also has such 



SILK 79 

an affinity for ordinary metallic salts that it is 
often heavily weighted with them. Connnon 
salt, however, destroys the silk fiber. That rot- 
ting of silks due to the salt present in perspira- 
tion is frequently noted. 

Concentrated acids and strong, hot alkalies 
destroy silk, and dilute alkalies decrease the lus- 
ters, although they have less effect on the 
strength of the fiber than upon wool. 

Silk has a great affinity for dyestuffs, absorb- 
ing coloring matter readily. Authorities dis- 
agree as to whether this is a physical or chemi- 
cal process, or a combination of the two. 

Weighting of Silk, — The practice of weight- 
ing silk is probably centuries old, for it has long 
been known that silk possesses a great affinity 
for tannin, but it is only within the last 25 
years that weighting has been in general use. 

The boiling off of the gum reduces the weight 
of the raw silk from 5 to 30 per cent. Since the 
price of raw silk is about $5 per pound it is not 
to be wondered at that ways have been devised 
to make up this loss. Harmless additions of 
plain sugar and sugar of lead were used in the 
beginning but the demand for cheap silks has 
brought about an exaggerated and injurious 



80 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

weighting. The throwster may leave an excess 
of soap and oils in the silk but most of the loss 
is made up and weight added in the dyeing proc- 
ess. Silk is very absorptive, it being possible 
to weight or load it up to five times its boiled 
off weight. AVhile this is a great advantage to 
the manufacturer, it is unfortunate for the con- 
sumer, since the result is the mechanical weak- 
ening of the filaments. This may be explained 
in various ways: first, the stretching of the 
walls w^hen taking in the metallic w^eighting 
weakens the fibers ; second, the salts crystallize 
when exposed to the sunlight, thus cutting the 
delicate filaments ; third, oxidation occurs in the 
course of time, with a consequent weakening of 
the fibers ; fourth, perspiration causes deterior- 
ation because chlorine is freed, which causes 
rotting. 

The silk to be weighted is immersed in a se- 
ries of solutions, with thorough washings be- 
tween each treatment. The number of immer- 
sions is determined by the amount of weighting 
desired. To weight a silk heavily requires 
many dippings. Compounds of tin, lead, and 
iron in solution are most commonly used. 
White and light colored silks are weighted ^s 



SILK 81 

well as black and dark colored. This is con- 
trary to the opinion commonly held, but can be 
easily demonstrated. Weighting reduces the 
strength of the fiber greatly. Strehlenart 
showed a black silk weighted to the extent of 
140 per cent was only one-sixth as strong as 
pure crude silk. Even a weak solution of com- 
mon salt has a pronounced deteriorating effect 
upon silk that has been weighted w^ith metallic 
compounds. The salt in the perspiration un- 
doubtedly accounts partially for its disintegrat- 
ing effect upon silk. The action of sea water 
also illustrates the effect of a salt solution on 
weighted silk. 

The practice of weighting silks with metallic 
salts is responsible for the small holes which fre- 
quently appear in present day silks. It also ac- 
counts for the splitting which is so common, as 
well as the fact that it is difficult to find a silk 
today which has satisfactory wearing qualities. 
The silkworm has not lost the art of spinning 
good silk, but the manufacturer has taken ad- 
vantage of this peculiar quality of silk. While 
this has made it possible to sell silk fabrics at 
a much lower price than formerly, it has also 
I)roduced a condition where it is almost impossi- 



82 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

ble to find a silk of the firm taffeta type, at any 
price, which is free from weighting. 

Again, what we need is textile laws requiring 
proper labelling of material offered for sale. 
To quote from an article in Harper's Weekly: 
^^ There is at present an agitation in the silk 
trade to bring about the marking of all silk to 
show its degree of purity, so that the innocent 
consumer may be able to buy silk with some de- 
gree of intelligence. It is pointed out that, while 
there are conditions when the adulteration is 
not harmful (when the wear is not essential) a 
law of this kind would greatly increase the 
standard of quality.'^ 

We will not attempt to decide whether the 
public or the manufacturer is most to blame for 
the present condition. However that may be, 
it should be possible to purchase well-wearing 
silks, if one is willing to pay the price. 

The simplest test for the detection of weight- 
ing in silk is that of burning the fiber. Pure 
silk, when held in a flame, burns quickly, melts, 
and runs together, leaving a small quantity of 
carbon. If burned long enough at a sufficiently 
high temperature this residue entirely disap- 
pears. 



SILK 



83 



Weighted silk, when burned, simply blackens 
and remains in practically the original form. A 
longer burning would again decompose the 




'. ^^mncmumi 






Original 



Residue 





Original Residue 

Weighted Silk Above, Pure Silk Below, Before and 
After Burning 

black carbon but still leave the mineral matter, 
usually in the form of a grayish or reddish ash; 
depending on the mineral used, 



84 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

Sometimes the threads one way will be 
weighted while the others are pure, and less 
often a piece will be found which has a few 




Original 



Residue 




Orig-inal Residue 

Weighted Silks Before and After Burning 

weighted threads woven in a design, while the 
bulk of the material is pure silk. 

The simple burning with a match is a most 
practical household test. As a general rule, 



SILK 



85 



the less weighting the greater service may be 
expected from the material. Where the threads 
one way are weighted, this rule does not hold 




Original Eesidue 

Messaline, 21 inches 
$1.50 per yard 

Weighted Silks Before and After Burning 



good, because if the threads in one direction 
give way, the material loses its usefulness. 

Burn a number of pieces of silk to discover 
some which are pure silk, some weighted both 
ways, some weighted only one way, and if pos- 
sible some which show wei^rhted threads used in 



86 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

a design when the large part is pure silk or 
vice versa. 

Wash silks are often part cotton. Perhaps 
the most common mixture is a cotton warp and 
silk weft. By exposing the warp and weft 
threads separately the difference can often be 
detected readily. The following test may be 
used if there is any question. 




Before After 

Charmeuse Messaline 

Pure Silks Before axd After Burning 

Treat a sample with concentrated hydro- 
chloric acid (HCl). Silk will dissolve much 
more quickly than any other fiber. 

Other silks have been found to be adulter- 
ated with linen, also. This is not common, and 
may be detected by using the same test and the 
microscope. 

Artificial Silks, — The idea of producing fine 
threads having the luster of natural silk dates 



SILK 87 

back as far as 1734 when the French naturalist 
Reaumur suggested that since silk was what he 
described as a naturally hardened gum, it 
should be possible to produce similar filaments 
by forcing a varnish, such as that used by the 
Chinese, through minute openings, and drying 
the threads thus obtained. 

In 1855 Andemars of Stockholm took out a 
, patent in which nitrated cellulose, prepared 
from the inner bark of the mulberry tree, was 
dissolved in a mixture of alcohol and ether and 
the solution evaporated with a solution of India 
rubber. A steel point was dipped into the vis- 
cid liquid, and the threads adhering to it were 
drawn out into fine filaments. This did not 
achieve commercial success. 

Real beginning was due to Chardonnet whose 
first patent was obtained in 1885. Nitrocellu- 
lose, prepared from cotton or wood pulp, is dis- 
solved under pressure in a mixture of ether and 
alcohol, and the viscous solution forced through 
small openings 1/100 mm. in diameter. The 
solvent evaporates and leaves the nitrated cellu- 
lose. Three, four, or more fibers are spun to- 
^^ether, and the threads denitrated by immer- 
sion in a 5% to 20% solution of ammonium 



88 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

hydrosulfide, and finally washed, dried, and 
dyed to any color desired. 

Artificial silks are made on a commercial 
scale by the Chardonnet process in France, Ger- 




Chardonnet Silk Fibers 

many, and Belgium, and on a smaller scale in 
England and the United States. Their use is 
limited almost entirely to ribbons, braids, tap- 
estry, and other fabrics in which strength is not 
the primary consideration. Compared with 



SILK 89 

true silk, the artificial silks feel harsher to the 
touch, are even more brilliant and lack the 
strength and elasticity of the natural product. 
The cMef drawback to the commercial suc- 
cess of collodion silk is its behavior with water. 
When wetted, the fiber loses its original strength 
to such a degree that it must be handled with 
great care. Soap solutions and dilute acids 
have no injurious effects, but alkaline solutions 
rapidly disintegrate the fiber and finally dis- 
solve it completely. 



CHAPTER V 

LINEN 

It is difficult to tell just when or where linen 
was first used, but most historians agree that 
Eg^^pt probably first discovered the value of 
the flax plant as a source of linen. The earliest 
picture writings show that the linen industry 
was well developed. Genesis 41 : 42 tells us that 
Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine 
Imen, and there are other references to flax in 
Egj^pt. This was about 1715 B. C. The refer- 
ence to ^^fine linen" would indicate that the in- 
dustry had reached a high state of development. 
Mummy cloths 4,000 years old show linen of 
quite a fine quality. 

From Egj^pt linen culture spread to Babylon, 
to Greece, and to Rome. Great encouragement 
was given to it in Italy, and guilds were later 
formed to regulate and protect the linen trade. 
All over Europe during the Middle Ages, and 
until the invention of power spinning, linen was 

9Q 




Flax in" Different Stages of its Preparation for 
Weaving 



91 



92 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

used almost entirely where today cotton is used. 
Since the industrial revolution, cotton has re- 
placed linen for many purposes. It can never 
replace linen for table service and many other 
purposes, because it lacks luster, smoothness, 
and the excellent laundering qualities. 

Ireland, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Rus- 
sia, France, parts of the United States, and 
Canada are raising large quantities of flax at 
the present time. Russia produces more than 
half of the world's supply, but Ireland and Bel- 
gium rank first in quality. 

Flax culture must be divided into two 
branches : culture for fiber, and culture for seed. 
In the United States flax is raised almost en- 
tirely for the seed. The relatively small amount 
of flax manufactured is imported and used 
largely for coarse fabrics, twine, and thread. 

The flax plaiit requires a temperate climate 
and a rich soil if it is to be used for fiber, as 
the growth must be rapid. An even, moist tem- 
perature and low altitude produce the best 
grades of fiber. 

The seed is sown -early in May, and it is 
grown and ready to pull by the last of June. 
The plant grows from a foot and a half to three 



LINEN 93 

feet in height and bears a delicate blue flower. 
Before the seed is entirely ripe, and when the 
stalk of the plant has turned yellow about two- 
thirds of the way down, the flax is harvested. 
It is pulled instead of being cut, to save all of 
the available fiber. 

Linen is the bast fiber of the flax plant, and 
to separate it from the rest of the plant is a 
long and tedious process. The following is 
the general method of procedure : (1) rippling, 
(2) retting, (3) drying, (4) braking, (5) scutch- 
ing, (6) hackling. Eippling removes seeds and 
leaves by crushing between rollers. Retting is 
a process of fermentation which loosens the bast 
fibers from the woody portion by decomposing 
the resins which unite them. This is accom- 
plished in one of three ways: (1) by exposing 
it to the dew, (2) by allowing the fibers to re- 
main in stagnant water for several days, or (3) 
by leaving them in slow running water. This 
last method probably gives the best results. The 
most successful attempt to shorten the process 
is by the use of tanks of heated water. In this 
way the retting may be accomplished in from 
fifty to sixty hours. After retting, the bundles 
are set up in the fields and allowed to dry. 



94 THE STUDY OF FABEICS 

Braking crushes the woody part in a flax brake 
as a preparatory step to separating it from the 
fiber. Scutching separates the straw and fiber 
by the action of several wooden knives, mounted 
in a wheel, which strike, as the wheel revolves, 
against a wooden block across which the flax is 
laid. Hackling combs out the fiber, freeing it 
from the woody portion, and dividing the fiber 
into ^^line" and '^tow" — ^^line" being the long, 
smooth fibers, and ^^tow" being the short, 
snarled ends used only in cheap linens. Hand 
hackling usually takes the place of the machine 
for the better grades of flax. Drawing and 
spinning are similar to the process as used in 
the manufacture of cotton. Flax spinning is 
much more satisfactory if done in a moist at- 
mosphere. The hand spinner of former days 
kept a bowl of water at hand, in vrhich she 
moistened her fingers as she spun. 

Weaving linen is rather more difficult than 
weaving cotton. The fiber is not so elastic, and 
breaks w^hen there is a sudden strain instead of 
stretching as cotton does. Coarser linens, such 
as Russian crashes, are still woven on hand 
looms by peasants in different countries. Fine 
damask, woven for so long on hand looms, is 



LINEN 95 

now made almost entirely on power machines. 

Bleaching may be done at one or two different 
times: (1) immediately after retting, or (2) 
after the cloth is woven. If it be done most 
carefully it requires a combination of many 
washings, treatments with bleaching powder, 
rinsings, grass-bleaching processes requiring 
not only weeks of time, but proper fields upon 
which the cloth may be spread and favorable 
weather to do the grassing. The modern proc- 
ess in the United States is accomplished al- 
most entirely by chemicals. It is treated with 
sodium carbonate, bleaching powder, and di- 
lute sulphuric acid successively, being thor- 
oughly washed between these operations. Ire- 
land, famous for its beautiful linens, uses the 
first method. 

Linen loses from 25 to 30 per cent in bleach- 
ing, and becomes weaker as it becomes whiter. 
The loss of tensile strength is much more 
marked when chemicals are largely used than 
when the natural agents — sun and air — do the 
work. This partially explains the great differ- 
ence in wearing quality between the old home- 
spun and the modern machine-made linens. 
After bleaching, the material is washed, dried, 



96 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

starched, and ironed to give it a glossy appear- 
ance. The heavy pressing after the addition of 
sizing materials not only gives a good finish 
but also makes it possible to handle the linen 
in the store without destroying its finished ap- 
pearance. Sizing, when added in excess, makes 
a poor grade of cloth look well, but after wash- 
ing, the material often disappoints the buyer. 

Physical and Chemical Characteristics of 
Linen Fiber.— Good flax fiber, when separated 
from the stalk, should be from 12 to 20 inches 
in length, and will vary greatly in fineness. It 
is stronger than cotton, but lacks elasticity. Un- 
der the microscope the flax fiber is seen to be a 
long cylindrical tube with transverse markings 
or nodes at more or less regular intervals. The 
fiber is composed of cells consisting almost en- 
tirely of pure cellulose. The color varies from 
yellowish-white to brown, and from pearl to 
steel gray, the best quality being pale yellowish- 
white. The variation in color is due largely to 
differences in the process of retting. 

The hygroscopicity of linen is low, varying 
from 5 to 8 per cent, but the absorptive power 
is unusually high. It is this quaUty which makes 



LINEN 97 

linen an especially valuable material for tow- 
els. 

Luster is one of the most prized assets of 
linen, and is retained as long as the fiber lasts. 
The process of retting may affect the strength 




Flax Fibers 

and luster to some extent if allowed to continue 
after the resins are dissolved. 

Compared witli the otlier textile fibers linen 
is the best conductor of heat and electricity. It 



98 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

is this property wliicli makes linen feel cool to 
the touch. 

Toward mordants and dyestuffs linen does 
not react so readily as cotton; therefore, it is 
more difficult to set dye in linen cloth. 

The action of acids and alkalies upon linen is 
much the same as upon cotton, strong mineral 
acids destroying the fiber, cold, dilute mineral 
acids affecting the cloth but little if thoroughly 
washed out, and organic acids having no effect 
unless allowed to dry on and are afterwards 
moistened and ironed. Alkalies, if caustic, de- 
stroy linen cloth the same as cotton, but dilute 
washing soda solutions, borax, and soap have 
no appreciable effect on linen. The same pre- 
cautions have to be taken in using bleaching 
powders as with cotton cloth. 

Commo:n^ Linen Fabrics 

Crash. — A heavy, loosely woven material made of 

coarse yarn. It is much used for toweling and 

summer suitings. 
Damask, — A lustrous, satiny material used for table 

linens. 
Art Linen, — A material having a round, hard twisted 

thread. It is much used for embroidering and 

drawnwork. 



LINEN 99 

Handkerchief Linen. — A sheer, fine linen used for 
handkerchiefs, infant's dresses, waists, and 
women's clothes. 

Huckaback. — A dice-like pattern, very heavy and serv- 
iceable, used for toweling. 

Butcher's Linen. — Coarse, white material used for lin- 
ings mainly. 

Gla^s Toweling. — A smooth finished checked toweling 
made in Ireland. 

Household Linens.— Because of its smooth- 
ness of texture, its brilliancy, and its excellent 
wearing and laundering possibilities, linen is 
the one fiber best suited for the table and toilet. 
The very fact that it does not take dyes easily 
makes it easier to remove stains from linen than 
from cotton, and the satin smoothness of the 
cloth keeps it clean longer than other material. 

Table Linen, — Ireland, Scotland, and Ger- 
many supply most of the table linens. Irish 
linens are the best and most expensive, running 
from $.75 or $1 a yard to $3. The John Brown 
linen with the shamrock trade-mark, is one of 
the well-known brands of dependable quality. 
The Scotch linens have excellent patterns and 
run from $.50 to $2 and over for a yard. Ger- 
man damask, which is very durable owing to its 
having a closer, harder twisted thread than the 



100 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

others, runs from $.50 to $1.50 a yard. French 
damask is noted for its exquisite designs and 
effective appearance; the thread is fine and 
round. There is a wide range in quality, from 
the most expensive to the cheaper grades. 

When buying linens, rub them between the 
fingers to remove the starch and choose those 
which are firm and heavy with not too fine a 
thread. A consideration of the pattern is not 
only important from the standpoint of design 
but of wearing quality as well. A large figure 
with long overshot threads will not wear so well 
as the one with a smaller design and shorter 
threads on the surface. The reason for this 
is obvious, but is often forgotten when purchas- 
ing table linen. 

Bed Linen, — Although most attractive in ap- 
pearance and most durable, linen is not the most 
satisfactory material to use for sheets and pil- 
lowcases, as it is so easily wrinkled and, fur- 
thermore, feels damp and chill when brought in 
contact with the body. The high price of linen 
is also a point against its common use in this 
way. Linen sheeting ranges in price from 
$1.50 to $2.50 a yard. Hemstitched linen sheets 
may be purchased for about $7.50 a pair. The 



LINEN 101 

tubing for pillowcases ranges in price from $1 
to $1.25 a yard, and the ready-made pillow cases 
from $1.25 to $2 a pair. 

Toweling, — The quality of easily absorbing 
moisture, v/hich is a characteristic of linen, 
makes it suitable for use as towels. The 
checked glass toweling is excellent for drying 
silver and glassware, while for heavier dishes 
medium weight crash will give satisfaction. 

Hand towels of Irish huckaback give the best 
satisfaction,. being fine and soft and yet firmly 
woven. The familiar cotton Turkish towel is 
now duplicated in linen which, after one or two 
launderings to remove the harshness, is a de- 
light to use. 

Because linen brings a much higher price 
than cotton, and because cotton may be finished 
to resemble linen, dishonest dealers frequently 
deceive the buyer into paying for a product 
which he does not receive. Sometimes the two 
fibers are mixed, and again cotton alone is heav- 
ily starched and given a linen finish which is 
hard to distinguish from the true fiber. 



102 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

Distinguishing Between Cotton and Linen 

(Wash materials to remove the dressing before 
applying the following tests.) 

1. Linen feels smooth, cool, and heavy compared with 

cotton. Linen also takes greater luster in iron- 
ing. 

2. Untwist a cotton and a linen yarn. Pull them apart 

slowly and steadily. The ends of cotton fibers 
curl ; linen fibers remain stretched and pointed. 

3. Tear the material and compare the edges. The torn 

edge of linen is more irregular than that of 
cotton. 

4. Apply glycerine or oil, cotton remains opaque and 

linen becomes translucent. 

5. Burn some of the material. The burnt end of cot- 

ton is tufted, and that of linen is rounded. 

6. Ink dropped on linen is quickly absorbed and 

makes a spot with a regular outline, while on 
cotton the absorption is slower and the spot 
has a much more irregular outline. Often 
ink will be drawn out along the separate cot- 
ton fibers for some distance. This is due to a 
difference in the capillary attraction of the two 
fibers. This test involves somewhat the same 
principle as the old test of moistening tlie 
finger and putting it under the material, but 
is much more satisfactory. 
Note. — No one of the above should be taken as ab- 
solute. Try several before making a finai decision. 
Manufacturers have become so clever that they are 



LINEN 103 

able to treat cotton so as to make it look and react 
very much like linen. 

Select the following set of samples and test 
as suggested above : 

3 samples of table linen — varying in price, 
3 samples of huck toweling — varying in 

price, 
2 samples of heavy linen — suitable for 

tailored suits, 
1 sample of handkerchief linen, 

1 sample of linen sheeting, 

2 samples of glass toweling, 
2 samples of crash. 



CHAPTER VI 

LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 

Someone has said that ^^The state of civili- 
zation may be judged by the soap bill of the 
nation. '' That there is some truth in the state- 
ment we will all admit, I am sure. During the 
past decade there has been awakened a new 
interest in the subject of laundering which is 
a hopeful sign. 

We may differ, in our judgment, as to 
whether ironing is a necessity or a luxury, but 
there would be no disagreement as to the ne- 
cessity for washing. 

It is not simply to satisfy our sense of the 
aesthetic that the periodic washing has become 
an established custom in the home. There is a 
sanitary reason which a few words of explana- 
tion may help us to understand more fully. 

The skin acts as a heat regulating apparatus 
through evaporation of the perspiration, and 
also serves in some measure to eliminate the 

104 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 105 

body^s waste products. These materials are ab- 
sorbed by the clothing, and after a time the 
pores of the cloth become clogged. This condi- 
tion prevents proper absorption and evapora- 
tion of moisture from the body, thus increasing 
warmth of body in summer and making it colder 
in winter. 

The following may be given as the three main 
reasons for washing: 

1. To remove dirt and to open the pores of 

the cloth, 

2. To dry the cloth and to renew its ab- 

sorbing power, 

3. To destroy any bacteria present. 

In order that we may understand laundry 
methods it is necessary first to learn something 
of the nature of the things to be laundered and 
how these respond to the cleansing agents com- 
monly used. The purpose is not to discuss 
methods so much as the underlying principles 
which, if understood, will aid in the choice of 
the best method. 

We have learned by experience that cotton, 
wool, and silk must be treated differently if the 
best results are to be obtained. It may be of 



106 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

interest, therefore, to determine why this is 
true. In the previous chapters the physical 
and chemical properties of the various fibers 
have been given, but will be repeated briefly to 
make the application a little more evident. 

The vegetable fibers, cotton and linen, are 
most frequently laundered and, therefore, de- 
serve first place in this discussion. Their cel- 
lulose composition being so nearly the same, 
we find the behavior toward acids and alkalies, 
the chemicals we are most concerned with in 
the laundry problems, so nearly identical that 
they may be considered together. Effect of 
acids on the vegetable fibers: 

1. Strong mineral acids, as sulphuric, ni- 
tric, and hydrochloric, entirely destroy 
the fiber in a very short time. 

2. Cold dilute mineral acids have little ef- 
fect if not allowed to dry on. Organic 
acids, as acetic in vinegar, oxalic in to- 
matoes, citric in lemons, etc., have no ac- 
tion unless allowed to dry on. If dried, 
moistened, and ironed, they will destroy 
the fibers. 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 107 

Effect of Alkalies on the Vegetable Fibers: 

1. A strong solution for a short time in- 
creases the strength, as is illustrated in 
the process of mercerization. If submitted 
to the treatment for a longer time the fi- 
ber is weakened. 

2. Dilute alkalies have little, if any, effect 
according to present data. As many of 
the washing compounds, if properly used, 
come under the above class, the fact is of 
great interest to the laundress. The more 
delicate the fiber the greater the care 
which is necessary in their use. 

Effect of Acids on the Animal Fibers: 

1. Wool: Strong mineral acids destroy 
wool, but the destruction is much slower 
than with cotton. If acid is dilute, there 
is practically no effect. 

2. Silk: Strong acids disintegrate silk. A 
dilute solution weakens the silk fiber, but 
the action is less rapid than with cot- 
ton. 

Effect of Alkalies on the Animal Fibers: 
Strong alkalies, even though cold, have a 
softening effect on the wool or sill^ fibers, 



108 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

entirely disintegrating them in a short 
time. A dilute boiling solution will also 
dissolve the wool. This fact is made use 
of in the test distinguishing wool from 
cotton. Dilute alkalies weaken silk and 
destroy the luster. 

Water.— A plentiful supplj^ of water good for 
laundry purposes is an important factor in suc- 
cessful laundering. Good drinking water and 
good water for the laundry may not necessarily 
be identical. The mineral matter held in so- 
lution may be of value in the body, but be detri- 
mental in cleaning processes. A good water 
for the laundry should be clean, soft, clear, 
odorless, free from discoloration, free from 
iron, and from organic matter. 

Hard and Soft Water, — Because water is a 
good solvent, on its way to us through the rocks 
and soil it often collects soluble substances of 
an undesirable nature. The characteristic 
known as hardness is due to the presence of 
lime salts gathered in this way. When soap is 
used with hard water, a scum forms on the sur- 
face which is composed of an insoluble lime 
soap. This has no cleansing properties, and so 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 109 

simply wastes the soap which has been used. 
If the available supply of water is hard, the 
problem of the housekeeper is to find some 
means of removing the lime or of reducing its 
ill effects. 

Temporary and Permanent Hardness. — ^Ac- 
cording to the nature of the lime salts present, 
water is said to be temporarily or permanently 
hard. Temporary hardness is caused by the 
presence of carbonate of lime, and such water 
may be softened by boiling. The sediment pres- 
ent in almost any teakettle illustrates this. 

Permanently hard water contains sulphate 
of lime and can only be softened by the use of 
some chemical. The cheapest and best is an 
alkali such as washing soda, borax, or ammonia. 

Washing soda, which is most effective for or- 
dinary use, should be used in the following pro- 
portions unless the water is extremely hard: 
For each gallon of water use two tablespoons 
of solution made by dissolving one pound of 
washing soda in a quart of boiling water. 

Borax is especially good for colored goods 
and wool, and even though more expensive it 
may be economy to make the extra expenditure 
in those cases. 



no THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

The only satisfactory method of getting rid 
of iron is to add washing soda to the water and 
then let the water settle five or six days before 
using. 

Soap.— Soap making, which was formerly a 
common household process, is at present almost 
unknown. The lye which was obtained from 
wood ashes and the waste fat from various 
sources made a soap containing many impuri- 
ties and of uncertain quality. 

Soap may be made of any fat with caustic 
alkalies or lye. Chemically, lye is a hydroxid of 
either potassium or sodium — two closely re- 
lated substances having similar chemical char- 
acteristics and producing compounds of similar 
nature. 

AVhen lye is mixed with a fat, it breaks up into 
the fatty acids and glycerine of which it is com- 
posed. The lye unites with the fatty acids to 
form a new compound, called soap, and glycer- 
ine is left as a by-product. This process is 
called saponification. As can readily be seen, 
the nature of the soap formed will depend, first, 
on the nature of the fats used, whether these are 
hard or soft, clean or rancid; second, on the 
kind of alkali used^ whether caustic potash or 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 111 

caustic soda; third, on the nature and amount 
of impurities contained in both fat and alkali; 
fourth, on the completeness of the process of sa- 
ponification. If the operation of soap making 
is not properly conducted, the reaction between 
the fat and alkali is incomplete, and a soap is 
produced which contains free fat and an undue 
amount of free alkali. Such soap is greasy, un- 
duly caustic, and a poor cleansing agent. Resin 
is often added to cheap soaps, and while a 
small amount is of value in that it whitens the 
clothing, the presence of large quantities should 
be considered an adulteration. 

Home-Made Hard Soap, — Dissolve 6 lbs. of 
common washing soda in 4 gallons of warm wa- 
ter. Slack 6 lbs. of quicklime in just enough 
water to crumble it to powder, add the slacked 
lime to the soda solution, stir the two together, 
and add 4 gallons of boiling water. Stir it thor- 
oughly, let it settle, and use the clear solution. 
To this add 12 lbs. of clarified grease, stirring 
in at the same time 4 ozs. of powdered borax. 
Let it boil until it becomes thick and soapy. 
Pour it into a box lined with muslin to allow 
the contents of the box being lifted out conven- 
iently. Allow it to stand a few days, and then 



112 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

cut it into pieces of convenient size. It will be 
ready for use in about a month. 

It is not economy to use cheap and poorly 
made soaps in the laundry. Try soaps manu- 
factured by reliable firms, and choose the one 
which is most satisfactory. A common mistake 
is to think that one kind of soap will answer for 
all purposes. In the manufacture of soap, when 
just sufficient alkali is used completely to sa- 
ponify the fat present, the product is known as 
a neutral soap. If an excess of alkali is used, 
either a medium or strong soap is used, depend- 
ing on the amount of free alkali left in the soap. 
The neutral or mild soap should ahvays be used 
for woolen materials, delicate colors, and frail 
fabrics. A medium soap is best for durable 
colored goods, and a strong soap for most of the 
white materials. Much of the ordinary dirt on 
clothing is held by a fat of some sort. Soap in 
solution emulsifies the fat, thereby releasing 
the dirt. Any free alkali present unites with 
the fat to form soap which in turn aids in re- 
moving more of the fat. This shows why it is 
advisable to use a strong soap when there is 
much grease present. 

Soap Suhstitiites and Accessories, — Soap is 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 113 

the best cleansing agent for general use in the 
laundry, but there are other substances which 
may often be used to good advantage. Turpen- 
tine, kerosene, gasoline, and paraffin are useful 
because of their solvent action on fats. In dis- 
solving the fat much of the dirt is set free. An 
objectionable odor may remain after using 
these solvents unless the clothes are thoroughly 
rinsed. 

Most of the washing compounds on the mar- 
ket contain soap, an alkali, turpentine, par- 
I affin, or fuller's earth. The best powders con- 
I tain large amounts of soap and small amounts 
I of alkali. What has already been said concern- 
\ ing the action of alkalies should serve as a 
,. guide to the laundress in choosing a washing 
compound if she desires to use one. 

Bleach. — Sodium perborate (percil) is the 
most valuable household bleaching agent as 
there is little if any harmful effect on the ma- 
terial. It is also useful in washing white or 
light silks, as it prevents yellowing. 

Bluing. — After repeated washing, white ma- 
terials gradually acquire a yellowish tint unless 
carefully rinsed, and bleached in the fresh air 
and sunlight. Bluing has come into use to coun- 



114 THE STUDY OF FABRICS I 

teract this. The abuse of bluing is that it ma ■ 
be used to cover up the results of careles" 
work. 

Indigo, originally of plant origin, but nou 
manufactured artificially, was formerly tlic 
chief source of bluing compounds, but is little 
used at present. 

Prussian blue is the most common source to- 
day. It is cheap, gives a good color, and is 
readily soluble. The objection to its use in the 
laundry is that it is an iron compound which 
is decomposed by alkalies, yielding iron rust. 
If clothes are not carefully rinsed until free of 
all soap and other alkali used in washing, con- 
tact with the bluing will result in tiny rust spots 
on the clothes. 

Aniline blues give good, clear colors. Some 
may be used successfully alone, while others re- 
quire an acid to develop them. Acetic acid or 
vinegar is preferable to oxalic as the former is 
volatile and has less action on the fiber. These 
blues actually dye the material and should, 
therefore, be used carefully. 

Test for Presence of Iron in Bluing.— Pre- 
pare about a teaspoon of a strong solution of 
the bluing you wish to test. Add an equal 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 115 

amount of ordinary household ammonia and 
allow it to stand from 15 to 30 minutes. A red- 
dish brown precipitate shows the presence of 
iron. 

Most of the liquid blues on the market are of 
this type. If a satisfactory bluing, free from 
iron, is not available, the objectionable results 
of Prussian blue may be overcome by the use 
of an acid rinse to neutralize the alkali. Two 
tablespoons of acetic acid or about a third of a 

'cup of vinegar to a pail of water will be suffi- 
cient under ordinary circumstances. (The 
amount of alkali present in the rinsing water 

^varies greatly and, therefore, no absolute rule 
can be given. A smaller amount might often 
be sufficient.) 

Ultramarine blue is also an iron compound 
but it does not decompose with alkali. It is what 

^ is often bought as the ball bluing, and is in- 
soluble in water. Water, however, causes it to 
break up into very minute particles w^hich 

' spread through the liquid and give it a blue 

color. The water must be stirred, and one must 

be careful in using it that the clothes do not 

get streaked. 

Test four or five different kinds of bluing for 



116 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

iron (small samples may undoubtedly be ob- 
tained from your friends). 

To Set Colors.— It is always a safe precau- 
tion to set the color in most wash fabrics, and 
it is decidedly worth while for delicate colors. 
Any substance which will act as a mordant and 
cause the dye to be more completely impreg- 
nated in the fiber of the cloth will serve the pur- 
pose. 

Salt acts as a mordant for the substantive 
dyes which are most commonly used for cotton 
and linen, and, therefore, may be used to advan- 
tage in the household to aid in making the col- 
ors fast. A handful of salt in a dish of cold j 
water, however, is not sufficient. The material 
or garment must be placed in a strong, hot 
solution and allowed to stand until the water is 
cool to obtain the best results. If the material 
is to be shrunken before making up, the salt 
may be added to the bath and ' ' two birds killed 
with one stone." 

Because salt is cheap and on hand in every 
household, it is probably the best for general 
use. The effect of brine is said not to be last- 
ing. There are other mordants which may be 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 117 

used with equally good results, possibly better 
in some cases. 

Sugar of lead is good for all colors except 
pink and blue. 

Saltpeter is good for pinks and blues. 

Vinegar is said, by good authority, to be best 
for pinks. 

' Alum is recommended for greens, mauves, 
purples, etc. 

The following proportions should be used: 
To one gallon of water add % cup of mild vine- 
gar, or 2 cups of salt, or 1 tablespoon of alum, 
or 1 tablespoon of sugar of lead (which is 
poison). 

Experiments have shown that the best results 
are obtained when the fabric is treated before 
each washing, as the color is not permanently 
set. 

The value of rinsing a blue garment in a 
strong bluing solution to counteract the faded 
appearance is appreciated by many. Other 
delicate colors would often profit by a similar 
treatment in a dye solution of the same color. 
By having bottles of various colored dye solu- 
tions at hand, little extra time would be con- 
sumed. 



118 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

To Remove Stains.— The ordinary wasliing 
process is sufficient to get rid of most of the 
dirt in clotliing, but some of the spots and stains 
require special treatment. The best and easiest 
time to remove such stains is as soon as pos- 
sible after the misfortune has taken place. As 
this is not always possible, it is wise to go over 
the clothes to be laundered to see if any special 
attention is necessary. Some stains are insolu- 
ble in water, or soap and water, or may be made 
so by the action of heat, and thus become per- 
manently set in the washing. 

First, if possible, the nature of the stain 
should be determined. Second, some substance 
should be found in -which the stain is soluble. 
With that accomplished, the removal will be a 
simple process. It is not always possible to 
find a solvent, and the next resort is something 
which will form a soluble substance. Should 
this also fail, the last possibility is the use of 
a bleaching agent. A bleaching agent should 
be used only wdien everything else fails, as it 
will remove the color and may weaken the fabric 
if not used with great care. 

The various classes of stains will be taken 
up and methods of removal suggested. If one 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 119 

does not work well in your particular case, try 
another. Always use some absorbent material 
under the spot so that the loosened dirt will not 

, simply spread. Use a soft cloth, rubbing gently 

, and softening the outline as much as possible. 
When cleaning spots, run a thread around 

:; them so as to be able to find them easily after 

! the garment is wet. 

Before using any cleaner, try it first on the 
inside of a seam to see whether it will change 

i the color. 

To raise the nap of wool goods place a wet 
piece of the same material over the spot and 
iron with a moderately hot iron. The piece 
will adhere and the nap raise when pulled 
apart. Needless to say, if the nap is worn off 
this will accomplish very little. 

A round bottle filled with hot water is su- 
perior to a flatiron for pressing seams in deli- 
cate goods. 

Grease. — Many times it is grease that holds 
dirt, as has been suggested. Special care is 
necessary in that case only when the material 
is such that it cannot be submitted to ordinary 
laundry processes. 



120 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 
Solvents: 

Alcohol, 

Ether, 

Chloroform, 

Carbon tetrachloride (carbona), 

Gasoline, 

Naphtha soap and water. 

Carbon tetrachloride (CCI4) is also sold 
under the commercial nanie of carbona. They 
are one and the same thing, but the carbona 
costs about one-half more. The great advan- 
tage lies in the fact that this compound is not 
inflammable as most of the other solvents for 
grease, so may be safely used around lights 
and fire. It is too expensive to use when im- 
mersion of the article is necessary. 

Gasoline is the most practical reagent for 
use when the entire article needs cleaning. It 
must be used away from the fire to avoid any 
possibility of serious accidents. Place the gar- 
ment, well covered with gasoline, in a vessel 
which may be tightly covered, and allow it to 
stand several hours, or over night. If the gaso- 
line is warmed by being placed in a dish of hot 
water, the dirt will be dissolved more quickly 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 121 

and easily. Especially soiled places may re- 
quire a little rubbing to aid in loosening the 
dirt. Rinse in clean gasoline and hang in the 
open air. 

A pure, neutral soap may be used with gaso- 
line, the same as with water. It is necessary, 
of course, to rinse the garment thoroughly in 
clean gasoline after using the soap, A com- 
mercial cleaner, Putnam's Dry Cleaner, the only 
commercial compound known by the author to 
' be on the market at the time of this writing, 
may also be used with good results. 

The soiled gasoline should not be thrown 
away, as the impurities will settle to the bottom 
and the clear gasoline may be poured from the 
top. 

It is economy to use plenty of gasoline, as 
the results will be more satisfactory, and with 
proper care it may be used many times. 

Wagon grease, if dried on, should first be 
softened with lard or oil and then washed in 
soap and water, or one of the solvents , for 
grease may be used. 

For paint and varnish probably the best sol- 
vents are : turpentine, alcohol, and ammonia. 

Meat juice, blood, or mucus may be consid- 



122 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

ered together, as all are protein compounds and 
react to similar treatment. Heat will coagulate 
these substances, as it would an egg, and for 
that reason must be avoided. 

1. Soak in cold water, then wash with soap 
and water. 

2. Add ammonia or salt to water, then wasli 
with soap and water. 

Milk, cream, and cocoa contain fat, protein, 
and, in some cases, coloring matter. 

The same applies to tea and coffee if cream 
or milk has been added. 

Use some fat solvent first, and then wash 
in cold w^ater. Soaking in borax water after 
removing the fat may sometimes be necessary. 
Glycerine will aid in removing tea stains. Soak 
the spot in glycerine, and then wash. 

Fruit Stains. — Fruit stains are held in the 
material by pectin, a gelatinous substance which 
makes it possible for fruits to ^^jell," as we 
say. This is soluble only in boiling water. 
Spread the stained surface over a dish. Pour 
boiling water through it from a height, so as 
to strike the stained part with force. 

Glycerine has been found of some assistance 
in removing peach stains, and camphor for fruit 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 123 

, stains in general. Alcohol in boiling water is 
I also a good solvent for frnit stains. 
' In the case of old stains it may be necessary 
' to use a bleaching agent, as Javelle water. This 
may be used only on white materials, as it will 
remove the color also. 

Iron Rust, — 1. On white, wet the stained 
part with borax and water or ammonia, and 
spread it over a bowl of boiling water. Ap- 
ply a ten per cent solution of hydrochloric acid 
(muriatic), drop by drop, until the stain 
brightens. Dip it at once into water. If the 
stain does not disappear, repeat the process. 
After removing the stain, rinse well with am- 
monia to neutralize any acid that may remain. 

2. A ten per cent solution of oxalic acid 
may be used as above. Oxalic acid is not so 
detrimental to the fabric, but is a deadly poison 
even in the dilute solution and so should be 
labeled poison. 

3. Wet the stained part with a mixture of 
salt and lemon juice. Place it in the sunshine. 
This is a much weaker reagent than the two 
preceding, and, therefore, will take a longer 
time, and is often not so effective. 

4. The commercial ink eradicators may be 



124 THE STUDY OP FABRICS 

used in some cases. Einse thoroughly after 
using them. 

5. Erustieator, a commercial product, may 
be used satisfactorily in removing rust stains. 
It is a chlorine compound and acts as a bleach- 
ing agent. Rinse thoroughly after using it. 
Though there may be others designed for the 
same purpose, at the present time the author 
does not know of any. 

Ink is often difficult to remove, as it varies so 
greatly in composition. It is well to experi- 
ment with a corner of the spot before operat- 
ing on the whole. 

1. If the stain is fresh, soak it in milk. Use 
more milk as the old becomes discolored. 

2. Wet it with cold water. Apply oxalic 
acid to a stain on white cloth, let it stand a few 
minutes, and rinse it. Repeat until the stain 
disappears. Rinse it in water to which borax 
or ammonia has been added. This will neutral- 
ize the acid and prevent weakening of the 
fabric. 

3. Commercial ink eradicators are most ef- 
fective as a rule. The removal is accomplished 
quickly and with little detriment to the material 
if they are carefully used. 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 125 

Milk is the only reagent given which will not 
destroy color. 

Iodine or Medicine. — Iodine and many medi- 
cines are dissolved in alcohol, and, therefore, it 
is the natural solvent to nse in removing the 
stains. Ammonia, chloroform, and ether may 
also be used. Ammonia is very good for iodine 
stains. A dilute solution of caustic soda or 
caustic lye may also be used. 

Grass Stains. — It is the chlorophyll or green 
coloring matter in plants which is removed with 
difficulty. Alcohol is perhaps the best solvent. 
Ammonia and water may be safely used if the 
colors are not delicate. 

Hydrogen peroxide may be used with am- 
monia and is more effective as it also acts as a 
mild bleaching agent. 

Mildew is a true mold, and, like all plants, re- 
quires warmth and moisture for its growth. 
When the heat and moisture necessary are pres- 
ent in a cloth, mildew grows upon the fibers. 
During the first stage of its growth the mold 
may be removed, but in time it destroys the 
fibers. 

1. Soak it in some acid, as le^non juice, vine- 



126 THE STUDY OE FABRICS 

gar, or buttermilk and salt and expose it to di- 
rect sunlight. 

2. Wet it with a paste of soft soap and pul- 
verized chalk. Expose it to sunlight. 

3. Javelle water may be tried in cases of ad- 
vanced growth. Success cannot always be ex- 
pected. 

Bleaching Agents 

Javelle water, to be used as a bleaching 
agent, may be made as follows : 

1 lb. washing soda, 

1/^ lb. bleaching powder (calcium hypochlor- 
ite), 

1 qt. boiling water, 

2 qts. cold water. 

Dissolve the soda in the boiling water in a 
granite pan and let it cool. 

Dissolve the bleaching powder in the cold wa- 
ter; let it settle; pour the clear liquid into the 
soda ; and let it settle. Pour off the clear liquid, 
bottle it and put it away in a dark place. This 
gives a 25% solution. Mixed with equal por- 
tions of water it may be used cautiously to re- 
move spots. If materials are to remain in the 
solution for some time, it should be diluted to 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 127 

about a 2% solution. Wash the material thor- 
oughly in several waters and finally in dilute 
ammonia water. 

To Clean White Shoes. — There are many 
preparations on the market, such as Albo, Buck 
White, Nuway, Bixby's White Shoe Dressing, 
and Whittemore's White Shoe Dressing, and 
many of them do good work. Directions for use 
are given on the bottle or box. Bon Ami is in- 
expensive and is on hand in many households. 
It may be used as follows: Brush the shoes 
to remove any loose dirt, and then apply a 
suds of Bon Ami and water with a small 
brush. When the water evaporates, the sur- 
face is covered with a thin coating of the Bon 
Ami. It does not, however, have the pasted 
appearance which many of the preparations 
give. While covering the dirt, it also partially 
removes the soiled spots. 

To Clean White Kid Gloves. — 1. Art gum, 
if used frequently for slightly soiled spots, will 
keep gloves in wearable condition for some time, 
postponing the necessity for a thorough clean- 
ing. 

2. A paste of gasoline and flour well worked 
into the gloves is effective. Care must be taken 



128 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

to keep the gloves away from fire until the gaso- 
line has entirely evaporated. 

3. Carbon tetrachloride may be used. 

Sulphur Dioxide Bleaching. — Javelle water 
or chlorine in any form cannot be used for silk 
or wool. For these the fumes of burning sul- 
phur, or these fumes dissolved in water, must 
be used. 

The garment should be wet or the special 
spots moistened and hung in some small en- 
closed space above a piece of burning sulphur. 
The sulphur candles, to be had at any drug 
store, are convenient for this use. 

A cone of heavy paper may be used as the 
^^srhoking room." 

To remove small spots, cut a small opening 
in the apex of the cone and hold the moistened 
spots above the opening so that they may be 
acted upon by the fumes. 

''They that wash on Monday have all the week to dry. 
They that wash on Tuesday are not so much awry. 
They that wash on Wednesday are not so much to 

blame. 
They that wash on Thursday wash for shame. 
They that wash on Friday, wash in need. 
And they that wash on Saturday — oh, they're sluts 

indeed." Old English Proverb. 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 129 

Let us forget if possible our prejudice in 
favor of Monday and determine whether it is 
not more sensible and convenient to have the 
weekly washing done on Tuesday rather than 
on Monday as has so long been the custom. 

First the clothes should be gone over, locat- 
ing spots and rents which need attention. ^'A 
stitch in time saves nine," is applicable here, 
as a small hole may be much increased in size 
during the washing process. 

Soaking clothes over night is felt by many 
to reduce greatly the labor necessary in remov- 
ing the dirt. 

Saturday has many special duties already, 
and most housekeepers do not want to take the 
time for these preliminaries. It is not justifi- 
able to take Sunday for it, and, therefore, Tues- 
day seems the more logical day for the laundry 
work. 

Before continuing to wash on Monday, there- 
fore, consider your individual case and be sure 
you have a better reason than that of custom 
only. 

Many garments worn Sunday would suffice 
for another day's wearing if the laundress could 
wait for them until Tuesday. 



130 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

Hanging Clothes. — Be sure the clothesline is 
clean. Clothes should be hung wrong side out, 
so far as possible, with the threads of the ma- 
terial straight. Sheets and other large straight 
pieces should be hung with the hems together 
and the hemmed ends pinned to the line to pre- 
vent whipping in the wind. Arrange, so far as 
possible, to hang garments so that the wind may 
blow through them. They will dry more quickly 
and with less injury to the clothes. Make a 
cheesecloth bag in which to dry dainty small ar- 
ticles such as doilies, embroidery, and fine hand- 
kerchiefs. The bag may be hung on the line. 

Skirts will sometimes keep their shape better 
if hung by the Avaistband instead of the hem. 
A safe rule to follow is to hang the garment in 
as nearly the natural shape as possible. It is 
difficult to iron properly a garment which has 
been badly hung. It is worth while to shake 
and straighten articles before hanging them on 
the line, and also when they are taken down. 
This will save time in the preparation for iron- 
ing, and also in the actual ironing. 

Much time may be saved by the busy mother 
in the home if knitted underwear, hosiery, many 
of the towels, etc. are not ironed. The absorp- 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 131 

tive power is lessened by smoothing with a hot 
iron, and if they have been boiled and dried in 
the air and snnshine further disinfection should 
not be necessary. Sheets properly hung and 
carefully folded when taken down may be made 
to look very well if the upper end is simply 
pressed a little. The housekeeper and home- 
maker, confronted as she is with innumerable 
demands upon her time, must choose those tasks 
she considers most worth while if she is to be 
an efficient worker. An aluminum sprinkler 
which may be used in any bottle of convenient 
size, is a valuable aid in sprinkling clothes. It 
makes a fine spray and accomplishes the desired 
end quickly. It may be purchased for ten cents. 
Warm water is absorbed more quickly than 
cold, and should always be used when the clothes 
are to be ironed soon. 

To Wash Woolens. — The characteristics of 
the wool fiber and its reaction to acids and 
alkalies have already been given, so the reasons 
for the following precautions should be under- 
stood. The temperature of the water is not so 
important as keeping the temperature the same 
throughout the washing and drying process. It 
is change of temperature rather than any par- 



132 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

ticular temperature which causes the shrink- 
age. Tepid or lukewarm water is recom- 
mended, as that is at the temperature which can 
be most conveniently retained while drying. 
Never dry woolens close to a fire, as the steam 
formed will cause the material to shrink. 

A neutral soap should be used in the form of 
a thin solution. Avoid rubbing soap on the fab- 
ric. Many prefer ammonia or borax to soap, 
and others use one or the other with soap. 
Borax or ammonia is especially valuable if 
the clothes are badly soiled or if the water is 
hard. Punch and knead the garment to loosen 
the dirt, but do not rub it. Use as many waters 
as necessary, being careful to have the tempera- 
tures as nearly the same as possible. Put it 
through a wringer which has been loosened, or 
squeeze the Avater out with the hands. Avoid 
twisting it as that also causes shrinkage. 

The following method gives good results with 
little effort. Dissolve a large bar of pure, neu- 
tral soap in enough water to make 2 qts. of the 
solution. Keep it in a fruit jar and use it as it 
is needed. To this amount of soap use a cup 
of borax, or, for small washings, use eight times 
as much soap solution as borax. Place the soap 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 133 

solution and borax in a receptacle containing 
cold soft water. Immerse the clothes and allow 
them to stand over night or for several hours. 
Einse them in clean, cold, soft water and hang 
them to dry in a cool or cold place. 

Recent experiments in the home economics 
department in the University of Wisconsin have 
shown that the use of cold water (as taken 
from the cistern or tap) and drying at room 
temperature gave the best results. The flannel 
in this way was kept white and fluffy and shrunk 
the least. 

Knitted underwear and hosiery are kept in 
the best condition by drying them over frames, 
which may be bought or made. A thin board 
cut in the shape of the garment works well. In 
the case of sweaters, shawls, or such articles 
as may stretch or shrink out of shape, pin them 
to a sheet on the floor so that the garment cor- 
responds to the original measurements. 

Blankets should be brushed and shaken to 
remove all dust before putting them in the suds. 
Do not attempt more than one pair at a time, as 
they are clumsy to handle. Work as rapidly as 
possible. The less time consumed in washing 
and drying, the better. When almost dry, the 



134: THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

blankets should be brushed to raise the nap and 
make them fluffy. This not only improves the 
appearance but also increases the warmth. The 
more air spaces enck)sed among the fibers, the 
less conduction of heat there will be^ and, there- 
fore, the greater warmth retained. 

To Wash Laces. — Fine, delicate laces should 
sometimes be dry cleaned rather than submit- 
ted to water at all. To wash them, use a 
warm suds of a mild or neutral soap, to which 
has been added borax or ammonia. Squeeze 
rather than rub them to loosen the dirt, as rub- 
bing is injurious to the delicate threads. If the 
lace is carefully basted to a piece of cheesecloth, 
less care will be necessary. After rinsing thor- 
oughly, the lace should be stretched into shape 
on a smooth, round bottle, or pinned to a soft 
pad, being careful to see that all the points are 
held in place. Lace may be stiffened by rins- 
ing in a mixture of two tablespoons of alcohol 
to one cup of water. Lace curtains should be 
brushed to remove all loose dust before placing 
in the soap solution. If curtain stretchers are 
not available, good results may be obtained by 
pinning the curtains out on sheiets, if care is 
taken to have them straight and even. 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 135 

Handkerchiefs. — If any member of the family 

has a cold, the handkerchiefs should be disin- 

: fected in some way. Boiling for half an hour 

will do. This may prevent the cold from being 

' passed on to the rest of the family. 

Machinery for the Laundry, — In this day of 
power machinery when men on the farm, and 
everywhere in fact, are doing all of their hard 
work with its aid, we still find the majority of 
women washing by hand as their grandmothers 
did. ^'In the good old way,'' do we say? Not 
if *^we" happen to be the ones who are doing 
the work. Who is at fanlt may be a debatable 
question. Perhaps it is the woman who will not 
insist that she be given these mechanical aids, 
and it may be a selfish man who refuses to fur- 
nish the necessary money. Mr. Allan L. Ben- 
son, in an article in the October, 1913, number 
of Good Housekeeping, says women have not 
machinery because they lack ^^ nerve." If he is 
correct, may they speedily acquire the necessary 
** nerve'' from somewhere. 

There are four types of washing machines 
which may be described briefly as follows : 

1. The ^^ Dolly" consists of a milking stool 



136 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

which revolves in the center of a tub of clothes 
This agitating of the clothes forces the son] ; 
and water through them and thereby removej-' 
the dirt. This may tear the clothes. 

2. Another machine uses a perforated re- 
volving cylinder which holds the clothes and an 
outer one for soap and water. The better ma- 
chines of this type are arranged to reverse the 
action automatically or with divisions to pre- , 
vent knotting of the clothes. If well filled with \ 
water and not overloaded with clothes, no hann 
can come to even delicate fabrics. 

I No cylinder is used in this type of ma- 
cliine, which cleans by oscillation, or rocking the 
clothes in soap and water. It is very satisfac- 
tory. 

4. The principle involved in suction washers , 
is that of pressure and suction. There is a lever ; 
attached to metal cones. These are pushed down > 
against the clothes, then suddenly lifted away 
from them and out of the water. A suction so 
caused draws out the dirt which has been loos- 
ened by the pressing. 

The following table gives the prices of the 
various types: 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 137 



Hand 



Water Electric 

Motor Motor 



1 


$10 


$12.50 to 
$16.00 


$50 


2 


$12 


$37.50 


$75 to $275 


3 






$100 to $125 


4 


$1 to $3.50 


$16 


$85 



' 'Note. — Most of these prices Avere obtained 
I from an article by Miss L. Eay Balderston in 
! the October, 1913, Good Housekeeping Maga- 
f zine. 

Many of the ordinary hand machines may be 
i connected with a gasoline engine at little ex- 
pense. A gasoline engine of IV2 horsepower 
equipped on a truck costs $40. 

To use washing machines most efficiently 
\ there should be plenty of hot and cold water 
easily accessible, also a drain in connection with 
the machine to carry off the dirty water. 

Mangles. — A mangle is a device to save hand 
ironing of the flat pieces. It is a great time and 
energy saver for the laundress. Mangles are 
of two types in general : liot and cold. The cold 
mangle simply presses out the creases without 
.i^iving a gloss. The sterilizing power of the 
'leat is lost in this case. A simple one which 



138 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

may be screwed to a table can be purchased for I 
$6 or $7. A stronger one with a table attached 
may cost up to $25. The hot mangles may be 
heated with gas and operated by hand or motor 
power. These usually consist of a hot steel cyl- 
inder and a cloth covered cylinder between 
which the clothes are pressed. The cost varies 
from $25 to $75. 

The electric iron is far more efficient and sat- 
isfactory to use than any other. If electricity 
is available, an electric iron should be a part of 
the laundry equipment. 

Before leaving the subject of laundering, a 
few words concerning the use of power ma- 
chines on the farm may not be out of place. 

It would be so easy on many farms to make 
use of the gasoline engine in running a washing 
machine, wringer, and.mangle with just as great 
saving to the housewife as to the farmer w^hen 
it pumps water for the stock or grinds the feed. 
Someone has suggested that the farmer has 
installed power machinery because it has meant 
dollars in his pocket. This is not so evident 
when labor saving machinery is installed in the 
home. Are there not other things of more im- 
portance, however, than the dollar which has 



LAUNDRY PROBLEMS 139 

assumed sucli large proportions? The health, 
I comfort, and happiness of the wife and mother 
surely deserve consideration. 

It has been done and, therefore, it can be 
again. A young Wisconsin farmer told about 
I getting his wife a power washing machine for 
her Christmas present. He connected it him- 
self and the total expense was under $25. He 
j also had running water in his home. ^^May his 
tribe increase." 

Another solution of the laundry problem on 
the farm is that of a cooperative laundry in con- 
nection with the creamery. Fillmore County in 
Minnesota has such a laundry in operation. To 
quote from an editorial in the Sioux City, la., 
Tribune: ^'The record of this cooperative laun- 
dry is noteworthy. About 750 farm washings 
are done each month and the monthly cost to 
each family averages $1.96. There is probably 
an actual saving to each family through elimi- 
nating the expense of a washing plant in each 
home. But the other benefits far outweigh the 
money saving. Women and girls of the farm 
are relieved of a burden that has contributed 
largely to the dissatisfaction with farm life. 
They have more time to make the fai'in liome 



140 THE STUDY OP FABRICS 

attractive for the men and boys, who thus share 
in the benefit. Social activities of this commu- 
nity will be stimulated and, in the long run, 
homes, schools, and churches will show in- 
creased efficiency through the release of women 
from the drudgery of the churn and the wash- 
tub." 



CHAPTER VII 

HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 

At the present time much is being said and 
written about the conservation of health. How 
to keep well is of far greater importance than 
how to get well. There is even some talk of 
having municipal physicians paid a salary to 
prevent illness rather than cure those who have 
become the victim of disease. It is not, how- 
ever, only a question of being sick or well, as 
the terms are ordinarily considered, but of car- 
ing for the body in such a way as to keep it at 
the highest point of efficiency. All should be in- 
terested in those things which will assist in 
keeping the body in such condition and conserv- 
ing energy to the point where life will mean 
the most to others and to oneself. One should 
not be satisfied with a mere existence or even 
escape from the doctor's care. Proper clothing 
is one of the means of attaining this end and 
is^ therefore^ worthy of careful consideration. 

m 



142 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

While age, climatic conditions, and the occupa- 
tion of the Avearer all affect the ultimate work- 
ing out of the problem, nevertheless there are 
some general principles which will help in the 
determination of what is best, considering the 
conditions of daily life. 

One might ask the question, ^^Why do we 
wear clothes?'' Different answers would natu- 
rally be expected, as the function of clothing is 
quite different under different circumstances. 
To summarize, the functions of clothing may be 
given (1) as a means of protection; (2) to sat- 
isfy our sense of modesty; (3) to satisfy our in- 
stinctive love of adornment; and (4) that we 
may appear like others, or be in fashion. In 
cold climates the protection afforded by the 
clothing worn is of primary importance, while 
to the naked savage in Africa, whose only cloth- 
ing is a string of beads, love of adornment heads 
the list. Adornment and fashion are of first im- 
portance in the minds of many, and are alone 
considered when choosing clothing. Fashion 
should not be ignored, but neither should the 
extremes of the designer be followed at the ex- 
pense of proper protection or the sacrifice of the 
sense of modesty. Compliance with the de- 



HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 143 

mands of fashion is good np to a certain point. 
Unless dressed according to the prevailing 
modes the majority of people are uncomfort- 
able, become self-conscious, lose their poise, and 
are unable to do their best work. One should 
strive to dress in such a way as to be uncon- 
scious of clothes. That is the condition which 
will make possible the largest amount of effec- 
tive work. Someone has said, ^^To be well 
dressed is not vanity but sanity," and it is 
true when considered from the standpoint of 
the comfort and poise of the individual. 

As mentioned above, age, climate, and occu- 
pation greatly affect the clothes problem. The 
infant, because of its proportionately large sur- 
face area, loses heat much more rapidly than 
the adult, and, therefore, must be protected by 
warmer clothing. Wool next to the child is 
necessary through the second summer. Old per- 
sons frequently feel the need of wool, because, 
since they are less active, their circulation be- 
comes sluggish and it is, therefore, more difficult 
to keep sufficiently warm. It is impossible to 
lay down any hard and fast rules, as individuals 
differ in their requirements, but as a general 
rule the normal adult does not feel the need 



144 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

of woolen imdorgarments. The warm houses 
and public buildings of the present time make it 
seem wiser to wear less in the house and then 
have a heavy w^rap to wear out of doors. 

One of the important objects of clothing is 
to aid in the maintenance of a uniform body 
temperature. The temperature of the normal, 
healthy individual is about 98° F. Slight varia- 
tions may not be serious, but a change of two 
or three degrees one way or the other is a dan- 
ger signal. The human organism maintains 
this constant temperature by either physical 
or chemical means. The physical means em- 
ployed are, (1) varying the amount of blood 
sent to the skin, which regulates the amount 
of heat lost by conduction, convection, and radi- 
ation ; (2) varying the amount of moisture given 
off through perspiration, and thereby affecting 
the loss of heat through evaporation. The chem- 
ical regulation is so called because it increases 
the amount of oxidation in the body. When the 
temperature is lowered, the nerves of the skin 
cause a constriction of the blood vessels sup- 
plying the skin, thereby increasing the blood 
supply of the internal organs. Increased oxi- 
dation increases the heat given off just as tho 



HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 145 

addition of fuel to the furnace means more 
available heat. Proper clothing decreases the 
necessity for the chemical regulation, saving 
energy and fuel (or food). 

The physical properties of textiles which were 
given in previous chapters should be reviewed, 
as those which affect the conduction of heat, 
absorption, and evaporation of moisture are of 
importance in considering the hygiene of cloth- 
ing in general, and especially of underclothing. 
Wool and silk are poor conductors of heat, and 
linen and cotton better conductors. Wool feels 
warm to the touch because it does not take heat 
away from the body. Linen and cotton feel 
cool and, therefore, make pleasant clothing for 
summer. The amount of air enclosed in the 
meshes of the fabric affects the conduction of 
heat even more than the nature of the fiber. 
Still air is a poor conductor of heat, and a cot- 
ton or linen fabric, if loosely woven or finished 
with a napped surface, is quite warm. Outing 
flannel is a good example of the effect of air 
spaces in increasing the warmth of a cotton fab- 
ric. Linen absorbs and gives off moisture rap- 
idly, cotton and silk more slowly, and wool most 
slowly of all. The hygroscopicity, or the prop- 



146 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

erty of absorbing moisture without seeming 
wet, is high in wool and silk and lower in linen 
and cotton. Wool may absorb 30% of its weight 
of moisture without feeling wet. 

Loosely woven linen makes an ideal material 
for summer underwear because it absorbs and 
gives off moisture very readilj^, thereby cooling 
the skin. The high price is prohibitive for most 
people, so the linen mesh underwear is not much 
used. A knitted cotton garment does very well, 
and the lower price makes these garments more 
popular than the linen. Linen and cotton can 
be laundered much more easily than wool and 
silk, which is another point in their favor for 
use in undergarments. 

Wool would make an ideal material for cold 
weather undergarments because of its low heat 
conduction, if it did not hold moisture for so 
long a time and ' ' felt ' ' in washing. Both objec- 
tions may be partially overcome, especially the 
latter, by mixing cotton, linen, or silk with the 
wool. Infants, invalids, and aged people who 
exercise little and do not perspire freely, need 
the warmth of the woolen material, and for them 
the wool and cotton, wool and linen, or wool 
and silk garments are satisfactory. A light- 



HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 147 

weight wool garment worn over a thin cotton 
one is found by some people to be a good com- 
bination. The cotton takes up the moisture 
readily and it is then taken up and given off 
slowly by the wool. This arrangement provides 
for the absorption of the perspiration and pre- 
vents the chilling of the body. 

The average normal individual is more com- 
fortable when clothed in cotton undergarments 
of various weights. Undergarments made of 
silk have a pleasant ^^feel" and the heat con- 
duction is low. The price is prohibitive for 
most people, however, and it is, therefore, little 
used in undergarments. 

It should be remembered that heavy and 
warm are not synonymous. A garment may be 
heavy and still not warm. Two light-weight 
garments are much warmer than one heavier 
one because of the layer of air between the two 
garments. 

The requirements for outer and undergar- 
ments differ somewhat, as the garment worn 
outside should be such that the wind will not 
penetrate easily, while a loosely woven under- 
garment offers greater protection because of 
the spaces retaining heated air. 



148 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

The importance of keeping clean the clothing 
worn next the skin can hardly be overestimated. 
The sweat glands of the normal adult secrete 
about three pints of perspiration daily, and 
most of this must be taken up by the clothing. 
When the pores of the cloth become clogged, 
proper absorption and ventilation are pre- 
vented, which means that the body remains 
moist and exposure to a draft causes a chill. 
Some fabrics are naturally cleaner than others. 
Linen contains less natural oil than cotton, and, 
since the fibers are longer, has fewer protrud- 
ing ends to catch dirt and bacteria. Experi- 
ments show that about three times as much dirt 
clings to cotton as to linen, and about twice as 
many bacteria are collected by the skin when 
cotton garments are worn. Cotton fabrics, how- 
ever, may be easily laundered, and the high tem- 
perature and soap used are satisfactory disin- 
fectants. Cotton garments may, therefore, be 
kept in a sanitary condition if changed fre- 
quently. Wool furnishes an excellent feeding 
ground for bacteria, especially when soiled, and 
the difficulty with which it is laundered makes 
an added objection to its use next the skin. 
Sleeping between woolen blankets, which can- 



HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 149 

not be washed frequently, is a most unsanitary 
practice, as the above statement indicates. 

Many girls and women are not sufficiently 
careful about frequent washing of corsets and 
shields. Corsets may be easily and thoroughly 
cleaned by the use of a small brush and plenty 
of soapsuds. After rinsing in clear water and 
drying in the sunshine, the garment is as fresh 
and clean as when new. Shields should be 
soaked a few hours in tepid suds, prepared with 
a pure neutral soap and soft water, and rinsed 
in cold water. Hot water makes the rubber brit- 
tle, and should always be avoided. A brush 
may be used here also, but it should not be 
necessary if the shields are washed frequently. 
They should then be hung to dry in a cool place, 
never near the stove or over a register, as the 
heat will spoil the rubber. Shields may also be 
kept in good condition for several days if they 
are washed off each time the garment is re- 
moved. This may be done by using a cloth 
dipped in soapy water, and afterward one 
rinsed in clear water. Thus the shields need 
not be removed from the garment. They must 
be removed frequently, however, and washed 
thoroughly. 



150 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

A word concerning the receptacles in which 
soiled clothes are kept may not be out of place 
here. A vulcanized or white metal holder is 
preferable to the more common wicker variety, 
since they can be kejDt clean and sanitary with 
little difficulty. The necessity for this is ob- 
vious, when it is remembered tliat large num- 
bers of bacteria are found in soiled clothes. A 
washable bag of firm material, if kept perfectly 
clean, maj^ be found satisfactory. 

The Corset. — AVhile it i)leases fashion at 
present to have the waist large and the cloth- 
ing worn loosely, in a few seasons the tendency 
may again be toward the small waist and con- 
sequent tight lacing. In considering the sub- 
ject of proper clothing, therefore, we cannot 
omit a discussion of the results of constriction 
of the waist and chest by the use of a tight cor- 
set. There may be a difference of opinion as to 
whether the present modes, allowing greater 
freedom of movement and a possibility of deep 
breathing, are the result of education along 
these lines or whether it is simph^ a whim of 
the designer. We trust and believe that the 
trend at the present time is toward more sen- 
sible and hygienic dress for women. There are 



hygd:]ne op clothing isi 

still many women who are ready to follow all 
the extremes of fashion regardless of whether 
they are contrary to the laws of health or not. 
Yet there is an increasing number of women in 
America who adapt prevailing modes to their 
own individuality and to their ideas of what 
makes for health and efficiency. 

It is believed by some that all corsets, how- 
ever worn, are not only unnecessary but harm- 
ful as well. Others feel that the straight front 
corset with the large waist and space above the 
waist to allow of deep breathing, is not harm- 
ful if worn loosely. Many of the newer corsets 
are low in the bust, some coming just above the 
waistline. Women who have never worn cor- 
sets find this type comfortable. They give per- 
fect freedom above the waistline and simply 
hold the abdomen in place and support the 
clothes at the waist. 

The old hourglass type of corset which made 
the waist as small as possible, by pushing either 
up or down any flesh or organs which were in 
the way, should be condemned from every point 
of view. The downward pressure is especially 
harmful because it causes displacement of the 
organs located in that region. 



152 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

Dr. T. Sadler, in ^^The Science of Living or 
The Art of Keeping Well," says on this sub- 
ject: ^^ Corsets restrict the breathing; they 
weaken the abdominal muscles; they displace 
the internal organs, favoring constipation, and 
indirectly contributing to the causes of indi- 
gestion and congestion of the liver and pelvic 
organs. The corset is indirectly chargeable 
with the vast amount of the sufferings of 
womankind usually designated as ^female com- 
plaints.' " The present day corsets, mentioned 
previously, cannot be charged with the evils 
spoken of by Dr. Sadler. The pressure in this 
case is low on the abdomen, where there are 
few organs, and serves as a support holding 
the organs in place instead of causing the down- 
ward pressure. With the possible looseness at 
the waist and above, there need be little if 
any interference with the circulation and deep 
breathing. The front laced corset is found t(^ 
be more comfortable by those whose work re- 
quires that they sit most of the day. The pres- 
sure of the front steel on the nerve center 
causes discomfort in some cases and many doc- 
tors recommend the front lace corset because 
it does away with the steel in the front. Tight 



HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 153 

garters on any corset are bad because of the 
downward pressure which should always be 
avoided for reasons already given. 

Corsets are not necessary for the woman 
with strong muscles unless she has a large ac- 
cumulation of fat at the abdomen which needs 
to be kept in place. Unless all garments be 
suspended from the shoulder, however, which 
is not always convenient, the discomfort from 
the bands at the waistline may be much worse 
than a loose corset giving plenty of breathing 
space. Hanging all garments from the shoul- 
ders may cause an undue strain on the back. 
This again is something which each individual 
must decide for herself, keeping in mind the 
general principles of health and hygiene. 

Shoes, — Shoes should protect the feet from 
hard or sharp objects and from heat and cold. 
It is important that the feet be kept warm and 
dry, as cold feet are frequently responsible 
for colds, disturbance of the bowels, and inflam- 
mation of the pelvic organs. A physician wdio 
has had large experience in a children's hospi- 
tal said that cold feet were the cause of more 
colic in babies than any other one thing. (\)ld 
extremities prevent proper digestion. Wearing 



154 



THE STUDY OF FABRICS 



rubbers is not considered fashionable by some, 
but a pair of rubbers worn in stormy weather 
will save much discomfort and possibly several 
doctor's bills. Rubber is impervious to both per- 
spiration and air, and, therefore, should only be 
worn when necessary. The low sandal variety 
are best under ordinary conditions. The ques- 
tion of wearing low shoes in cold weather should 
not be overlooked. The blood vessels are near 
the surface in the legs and arms, especially at 
the joints, as ankles and elbows, and conse- 
quently insufficient covering of these parts 
means a chilling of the blood. This undue loss 
of heat in the extremities means a proportion- 
ate congestion in some internal organ, with a 
possibility of serious results. It should be re- 
membered also that such a loss of heat means a 
loss of energy which might have been stored up 
for use in time of emergency or expended in ac- 
complishing something worth while. 

The close fitting, extremely pointed-toed 
shoes with the absurd French heels cannot be 
too strongly condemned. High heels are espe- 
cially harmful to young girls who are just 
developing into womanhood, and mothers 
should ^' think twice '^ before allowing their 



HYGIENE OE CLOTHING 155 

young daughters to wear them. The natural 
shape of the foot should not be lost sight of in 
selecting shoes. It is unlike the hand in that 
the large toe, which corresponds with the 
thumb, is usually longer than the others, and 
instead of running straight ahead, as so-called 
^^anatomicaP' shoes are built, slop(;s slightly 
outward. The shoe should, therefore, be some- 
what pointed, slanting from both sides toward 
the center, although most of the slope should 
come on the outside, following the natural 
curves of the foot. The natural lines of the hu- 
man foot are graceful and beautiful, and if we 
would only accustom our eyes to its real shape 
as displayed in properly fitting shoes, we would 
soon admire nature's work and cease futile at- 
tempts to improve upon it. Discomfort means 
lowered efficiency, and it is important, therefore, 
to have the feet, as well as the other parts of the 
body, comfortably clothed. Laced shoes can be 
more readily adjusted, and for that reason some 
consider them preferable to the buttoned style*. 
If the buttons are properly placed when {he 
shoe is purchased or after l)eing woi'n for a 
few days, however, buttoned shoes may be satis- 
factory for the normal individual. Experience 



156 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

with a large variety of materials has shown 
leather to be the best for general use. For shoe- 
making purposes it is unsurpassed because it 
is tough, flexible, porous, and reasonably water- 
proof, and has a moderate degree of ventilation. 
It is not ideal because it retains heat and per- 
spiration to an undesirable degree, has an un- 
pleasant odor and cannot be kept clean, to say 
nothing of sterile. The same pair of shoes 
should not be worn constantly, since they do not 
become thoroughly aired and dried out during 
the night. It is more satisfactory and economi- 
cal to have two pairs of shoes for ordinary wear, 
and change frequently. 

Just a word about the selection and care of 
stockings. It would be ideal from a hygienic 
standpoint if white hosiery could be worn all the 
time, but for obvious reasons this is not con- 
venient. The dye used in black or colored hose 
may cause trouble if the skin is bruised and 
broken. Numerous incidents could be cited of 
blood poisoning being caused in this way. 
Sometimes it has meant being laid up a few 
days, and occasionally even the loss of a limb. 
How to prevent such a situation is the question 
which interests us. Something may be told 



HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 157 

about the permanency of the dye by moistening 
the handkerchief or any piece of soft white cloth 
and rubbing the stocking. If the cloth is stained 
the stockings will crock when worn. Tight or 
ill fitting shoes frequently cause blisters which 
result in trouble. If the shoe rubs at the heel 
and begins to redden the skin, a thin piece of 
velvet pasted in the shoe, with the napped side 
next to the stocking, will prevent friction. 
Stockings which are too short are uncomfort- 
able and do not wear well because of the con- 
stant pressure. On the other hand, if they are 
too large the surplus forms in creases or folds 
which are also uncomfortable. The ^^ happy 
medium" of a perfect fit should be arrived at 
if possible for the sake of comfort and economy. 
For the person with sensitive feet the right and 
left hose, which are now manufactured, are ad- 
visable, but are unnecessary for the normal in- 
dividual. 

One Piece Garments. — From the inside out, 
one piece garments are best from a hygienic 
standpoint. They are more comfortable, as all 
who have tried both will testify. Extra bauds 
and layers of materials are eliminated. Such 
garments may be worn loose, since they are 



158 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

held in place, always looking neat and trim. 
Union suits are constantly gaining in favor, 
also combination suits, princess slips, and one 
piece dresses. Fashion is partially and perhaps 
largely responsible for the trend in that direc- 
tion, but however that may be, we trust that 
the condition may become even more prevalent 
in spite of changes in fashion. 

Long Skirts. — The wearing of long skirts on 
the street is most deplorable from a sanitary 
standpoint. Any thoughtful w^oman can easily 
realize that quantities of dirt and millions of 
bacteria are picked up by the skirt as it sweeps 
over dusty walks and streets. These are natu- 
rally distributed over the body and the disease 
producing bacteria may cause trouble. 

Collars. — The dressing of the neck has been 
the subject of much discussion, and there are 
various opinions held at the present time. 
There are some points, however, which are gen- 
erally conceded, and a knowledge of these will 
help in solving the individual problem. High, 
tight collars interfere with the circulation and 
may affect the eyes. Exposure of the throat 
and chest in cold weather is unwise for the 
average individual, as it means an undue loss 



HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 159 

of heat and energy. It is just as unwise, how- 
ever, to bundle up the neck with heavy furs or 
mufflers. This excessive covering of the neck 
and chest causes the skin to perspire freely 
and become tender so that the least exposure to 
cold results in congestion, thus increasing the 
possibility of sore throat, colds, and pneumonia. 

Hats, — Large or heavy hats are uncomfort- 
able, either because of the weight or the diffi- 
culty with which they are balanced. Nervous- 
ness and an unnatural position may result be- 
cause of the effort to balance and maintain the 
poise. Tight hatbands affect circulation and 
cause discomfort. Men err on this point more 
frequently than women but when the mode in 
vogue calls for the close fitting hat for women, 
it is well to have this possible danger in mind. 

Veils. — Care should be exercised in selecting 
veils, as those which contain spots or figures are 
hard on the eyes. If the figures are far enough 
apart, so that they need not come in front of 
the eyes, this annoyance may be elhninated 
Washable veils should be purchased so that 
they may be kept clean. Veils become soiled 
the same as anything else, and as they come in 



160 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

contact with the mouth and face, it is especially 
important that they be kept clean. 

It hardly seems necessary at this time to refer 
to the wearing of garments at night which have 
been worn during the day, but lest there be some 
who have never thought of the necessity of 
airing, especially the undergarments, we are 
mentioning it here. The discussion concerning 
absorption and evaporation of perspiration ex- 
plains the reasons for this. The union suit, 
shoes, and stockings should be placed where 
they will be thoroughly aired during the night. 
The dress or waist should be hung either wrong 
side out, or at least with the inside and shields 
sufficiently exposed so that they are well aired. 

If one is not sufficiently warm without the 
underclothing at night, a separate suit should 
be used. Aside from the reasons already sug- 
gested, the added bodily comfort is an impor- 
tant fact. For greater warmth sleeping gar- 
ments of wool or heavy cotton flannel may be 
worn. They may be purchased ready-made in 
various styles, or they may also be made at 
home. One style, more especially for children 
than adults, is made with a draw string in the 
bottom giving extra protection for the feet. 



HYGIENE OF CLOTHING 161 

Large pockets near the bottom of the gown fur- 
nish a warm, cozy place for the feet on a cold 
night. Garments are also made with feet using 
either knitted material or cotton flannel. Those 
are especially nice for children. The use of 
sleeping bags for children who are restless at 
night and ^'kick the covers off" will save a great 
deal of worry on the part of the mother. These 
Ijt may be made of a fourth of a blanket folded 
I' together the shape of a pillowcase. It can be 
r held together by coat hooks fastening on the 
f shoulders. A sweater or heavy woolen jacket 
I* must be worn to keep the arms and shoulders 
i warm. Mittens or sleeves long enough to cover 
J! the hands will be needed, as the hands should 
1 be kept outside. This is important as it re- 
^ moves the temptation of self-abuse. 
; To quote from ^^ Textiles" by Woolman and 
McGowan: ^^When all is said, personal en- 
vironment and idiosyncrasy must influence an 
individual's choice of textiles and manner of 
dress. Wool may be the right material for one 
case, because it does not permit rapid evapora- 
tion of moisture ; in other cases, this property is 
disadvantageous. The value of the study of the 
hygiene of clothing lies in the ability it gives to 



162 



THE STUDY OP FABRICS 



make an intelligent adjustment of clothing to 
one's needs, and further, to see the value of I 
dressing according to good sense rather than 
fashion. Women are flagrant offenders, but! 
not all the efforts of the clothing reformers I 
should be directed at them. As a whole, the ' 
clothing for men shows superior good sense to I 
women's, but men's attire is quite deficient in 
its adjustment to heat regulation, nor can much 
be said for some of its details, such as stiif, un- 
ventilated hats and stand-up collars. It may 
be unusual to defend women's hats, but from 
a hygienic standpoint they are generally better 
than the derby and top hat.'' 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 

^^It is estimated that nearly $15,000,000,000 
are spent annually in the United States in 
household maintenance for the items of food, 
bhelter, and clothing. Omitting the $2,650,000,- 
fOOO that man spends for tobacco and intoxi- 
f cants, it leaves over $12,000,000,000 spent on 
food, shelter, and clothing. Over this expendi- 
ture woman has more or less complete control." 
This is quoted from the bulletin describing the 
courses offered in the Home Economics depart- 
ment of the University of Wisconsin. While 
the production of food and clothing is largely 
in the hands of men, the consumption or use of 
these goods or products is directed by women. 
Dr. Edward T. Devine of Columbia University 
says, ^^To woman has fallen the task of direct- 
ing how the wealth brought into the house shall 
be used ; whether much or little shall be made of 
it, and what kind of wealth shall be brought.'' 

103 



164 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

He says also, ^^ There are three ways in whicl 
prosperity may be increased : We may choose; 
more wisely what things we shall produce; w( 
may produce more efficiently; we may consume 
more economically. The wiser choice and the 
more economic use alike fall within the range 
of what in economics is called consumption oi 
demand." After pointing out that the third 
method has greater immediate possibilities than 
the other two, and that the first is more im- 
portant than the second, he adds: ^*It is the 
present duty of the economist to insist upon 
this, to magnify the office of the w^ealth ex- 
pender, to accompany her to the very thresh- 
old of the home that he may point out, with 
untiring vigilance, its woeful defects, its empti- 
ness caused not so much by lack of income as 
the lack of knowledge of how to spend wisely.'* 
Perhaps these quotations from authorities in 
this line wall help to a realization of the respon- 
sibility which rests on the shoulders of every 
housekeeper and all other women who are 
spending unwisely their share of the $12,000,- 
000,000. The purpose of this chapter is to give 
a few suggestions which will help in solving the 
clothing problem. 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 165 

The majority of thoughtful women should be 
and are interested in obtaining the information 
which will make it possible for them to buy most 
wisely the things needed for themselves and 
( their families. The home is the greatest factor 
J in the happiness of the race, and in it woman's 
part is supreme. As she becomes more intelli- 
* gent in selection and purchase, the home in- 
creases in value and attractiveness. Training 
for economy in consumption should raise the 
levels of social life. If a person chooses to 
spend an undue amount on clothes or is waste- 
ful in buying because of ignorance, there must 
of necessity be that much less for education, 
travel, recreation, and other forms of higher 
life. 

Dress has an influence on the wearer as well 
as on the observer. One loses her self-respect 
when dressed in ragged or soiled garments. A 
woman who is over-dressed or inappropriately 
dressed is uncomfortable herself and wins the 
respect of others with difficulty. Good nature 
may be increased or decreased according as the 
clothes worn are clean, comfortable, and ap- 
propriate, or the reverse. Perhaps on first 
thought it may seem an exaggeration to say tliat 



166 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

neat clothing is a factor in virtue, but obser- 
vation will prove that it is easier ^'to be good" 
when one is properly clothed. 

Dressing Economically. — There are differ- 
ences of opinion as to what is the most economi- 
cal method of dressing, and it is perfectly rea- 
sonable that it should be so, since what is econ- 
omy in one case may be an extravagance under 
different circumstances. There may be individ- 
ual preferences, also, which deserve considera- 
tion. Some women prefer a number of inex- 
pensive ready-made garments to a few high 
priced ones. In some homes most of the sewing 
is done in the house, a dressmaker coming each 
season to assist the mother and daughters with 
the making of new garments and remodeling old 
ones. Some ask if the time, energy, nervous 
strain, and results obtained warrant the use 
of this method. That depends on the attitude 
of the workers and the ability of the dress- 
maker. Some women enjoy sewing if someone 
plans and directs the work. Many others feel 
that the saving of time and worry when gar- 
ments are purchased ready-made balances the 
additional expense. The business woman, who 
has little free time, cannot afford to use her 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 167 

leisure in sewing, or even in selecting materials 
and having the fittings required by the ordinary 
dressmaker. A woman with a normal figure can 
find ready-made garments which require little 
if any fitting. For such a one little time is 
required for shopping. 

Ready-made garments are being made more 
simply and of a better grade of material than 
formerly, so that one trained to appreciate good 
material and good design is able to select satis- 
factory garments at a reasonable price. Some 
professional women prefer another plan. They 
order their gowns at the higher class customs 
tailors or dressmakers. The best material is 
purchased and ^ ^ exclusive ' ' styles are chosen, 
avoiding extremes so that the garments may be 
used two or three seasons without alteration. 
They feel that they thus preserve the dignity 
and individuality of dress w^ithout spending too 
much time or money on it. Others of this type 
are satisfied with the best of ready-made gar- 
ments, and they save the time which would be 
spent with the tailor. There is also a large num- 
ber of women who use a combination of several 
of the methods suggested. Suits, coats, and tail- 
ored skirts, for example, nuiy be purchased 



1G8 THE STUDi' OF FABRICS 

roadj^-made ; afternoon and evening dresses 
may be made by a good dressmaker; and the 
l^lain sewing maj be done at home. This is 
only suggestive, the object being to bring to 
mind the various methods which have proved 
successful. 

Someone has well said: ^^ Economy lies in 
getting few things, but good ones. It is mani- 
fest economy to get a suit or coat that will 
last and look well for two years or more; also 
to choose a conservative color and style, so that 
the suit will not be conspicuously out of style 
the second season.'' This principle, referred 
to several times before, can hardly be over-em- 
phasized. Cheap things are never economy if 
durability is a desired quality. A standard ma- 
terial, as serge, always gives better value for 
the money than a material of some new weave. 
It costs no more to make up good, durable ma- 
terial than poorer qualities, and since the gar- 
ments made of cheap, slimsy material must 
be replaced after a short time, the appar- 
ent economy in the initial purchase is found 
to be a wasteful extravagance. The youni:!: 
girl who is earning five or six dollars a 
week is unwise when she purchases a suit of a 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 169 

striking color and desigTL. In a short time the 
attractiveness has largely disappeared. If the 
same amount of money had been put into a serge 
suit of conservative color and style, it would 
continue to look well for two or three years. To 
be sure young girls like bright, showy things 
and tire of the plain, serviceable materials. It 
is perfectly natural that they should have this 
desire, and it should be satisfied in so far as is 
consistent with the amount which may be spent 
for clothes. This color can be obtained much 
more economically, and satisfactorily in the end, 
by the use of collars, ties, belts, etc. The girl 
or woman of small means, after thoughtfully 
considering all sides of the clothes problem, will 
find a joy and satisfaction in the planning and 
scheming which will go far toward making the 
limited allowance buy the articles needed. 

When purchasmg leather goods, as shoes, 
gloves, purses, etc., remember that good leather 
is not cheap, and also that cheap or imitation 
leathers are not durable. A pair of good, well 
made shoes will often outwear two pairs of 
cheap ones. However, shoes are not always dur- 
able in proportion to the high price. The line, 
soft kid are expensive but not durable, so judg- 



170 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

ment must be used. It is always economy to have 
at least two pairs of shoes at a time, since they 
w^ear longer if allowed to become thoroughly 
aired and dried frequently. One pair of gloves 
at $1.50 or more gives better service than three 
or four pairs of cheap ones. This does not 
mean that expensive gloves may not occasion- 
ally be purchased at a reduced price. To be 
sure that one is getting a ^^real" bargain one 
must either be a good judge of leather, or make 
the purchase at a reliable store. Good kid may 
be repeatedly cleaned, while a poor quality 
often looks bad after a few treatments. 

There are people who wear cheap hose as long 
as possible before mending, and then throw 
them away. Any thoughtful person can see the 
extravagajice of this practice from every point 
of view. Buying good stockings is economy of 
time, when repairs are considered, and of 
money, because of the greater length of life. 

There are two types of hosiery, the seamless, 
and the full-fashioned. The seamless, as the 
name implies, is made without a seam, and the 
full-fashioned has a seam at the back and pn 
the sole or sides of the foot. Most of the seam- 
less hose are knitted in one circular piece, 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 171 

leaving an opening at the toe to be looped to- 
gether. The leg, heel, and toe are then shaped 
by steaming and then drying on boards of the 
proper form. There are exceptions to this gen- 
eral rule, as one manufacturer controls patented 
machines whereby the knitting and shaping are 
accomplished in one process. The advantage of 
this type is in the la^ck of seam which may be 
uncomfortable; the disadvantage is that they 
lose their shape in time. The full-fashioned 
stocking is knitted on machines with the needles 
arranged in straight lines which automatically 
drop the requisite number of stiches at various 
points so that when sewed together it will con- 
form to the natural shape of the foot. This 
type of hose fits the ankle snugly, and for that 
reason is preferred by many critical women. 
The discomfort of having the seam on the sole 
of the foot has been obviated in some cases by 
placing the seams on the sides. 

Cotton hosiery varies in price and durability 
according to the quality of fiber used. The long 
stapled varieties produce the best and strong- 
est hose, and it is economy to pay tlie extra 
price for this grade. A lisle stocking is one 
manufactured from lisle thread, which is made 



172 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

out of combed Egyptian cotton tightly twisted 
and run through a gas flame to remove the lint 
always seen on other yarns made from cotton. 
This singeing does not injure the yarn, but gives 
the stocking a firm, wiry feeling. A silky ap- 
pearance is given to either tlie cotton or lisle 
thread bj^ the process of mercerization. Mer- 
cerization increases the strength of the fiber 
and also its affinity for dj^estuffs. The better 
grades of cotton are apt to be used when the 
stocking is to be mercerized, and so for these 
reasons mercerized hose usually wear better 
and hold the dye better than ordinary cotton. 
Silk hosiery may be made from pure, reeled silk 
or from spun silk. Spun silk is less expensive 
than the reeled, but it is not durable. Good 
silk stockings are not cheap and it is necessary 
to pay at least one dollar for durable reeled 
silk hose. The life of silk hose may be appre- 
ciably lengthened by rinsing them in warm or 
cold water each night after they have been worn 
during the day. This may be done easily if run- 
ning water is available, and will be found worth 
wdiile. 

The selection of color is important, not only 
from the artistic point of view, but also when 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 173 

the money side is being considered. The woman 
who is spending only a small amount on her 
clothes cannot afford to buy vivid, striking, or 
queer colors which do not harmonize with other 
things and are so conspicuous that, once seen, 
they are remembered. Unless one's circum- 
stances are such that a suit or a dress may be 
discarded after wearing a few times, novelties 
in color and style should be avoided. The 
woman with a small clothing allowance should 
adopt a color scheme limited to those colors that 
are becoming and that harmonize. Use a staple 
color, as navy blue, soft brown, or green as 
a foundation, with gloves, hats, neckwear, and 
other accessories in harmony. The economy 
of this is evident, as fewer garments will serve 
all occasions. Navy blue is the safest color 
to choose, as it is becoming to almost everyone 
and can be purchased in all standard materials. 
The woman with brown eyes or red hair will 
find brown, green, or black most becoming, and, 
therefore^ most suitable. White material is 
usually most economical for summer wear be- 
cause it may be laundered more frequently and 
easily than colored materials. The design of a 
white garment is usually less conspicuous (hau 



174 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

any color and so may be worn for a longer time. 
The soft ratines and crepes, requiring little if 
any ironing, have helped to solve the laundry 
problem and thereby removed the objections to 
wearing white. 

The problem of economy in hats is not so 
easily solved as some others. Good millinery 
materials are not cheap, but the artistic skill of 
the milliner is far more expensive. Therefore, 
if a woman can make or trim her own hats she 
w^ill be able to effect a great saving. This re- 
quires skill not possessed by the average girl 
or woman. It may be acquired to some extent, 
but requires time. Exchange of work may be 
more practical in some cases. A woman with 
this artistic skill might be very glad to trim a 
hat in exchange for some sewing or mending. 
There is a difference of opinion as to whether 
it is better to get a more expensive hat and 
wear it two seasons or to get a cheap one every 
season. If the style is extreme and not likely 
to be good a second season, it would be much 
wiser to choose an inexpensive shape with per- 
haps more expensive trimmings which could be 
utilized again. Heavy satin ribbon is a durable 
material for trimming, and while rather expen- 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 175 

sive to begin with, it will stand wear and tear 
better than most trimmings. Good ostrich 
plumes in black or white may be used several 
seasons if given good care. Artificial flowers 
are not economical usually. Close bunches of 
small flowers or buds with plenty of foliage 
stand exposure better than large, loose roses or 
other flowers. Faded flowers may be recolored 
quite easily. Any one with a very little skill 
can freshen up old flowers with water color 
paints. A simpler method requiring no partic- 
ular artistic ability is as follows : Mix oil paints 
with gasoline or benzine until the desired shade 
is obtained, then immerse flowers in this mix- 
ture. They must be kept away from fire of 
any kind until perfectly dry. Cheap felt soon 
loses its shape and looks badly, while a good 
felt hat of a conservative shape will look well 
for several seasons. Black hats are generally 
most economical, as they go with everything 
and are most easily freshened and cleaned. 

What Is a Bargain? — Is there anything which 
so delights the heart of a woman as being able 
to take advantage of a bargain? Everything 
I^laced on the counters where a bargain sale is 
advertised is not necessarily a real bargain. 



17G THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

The salesmen have discovered that many women 
do not exercise their judgment when attending 
such sales and have learned to take advantage 
of this. The following incident illustrates this 
fact. A clothing store in Michigan had a slight 
fire, and some of their goods were mussed and 
soiled by the water and smoke. To get rid of 
these damaged goods a fire sale was advertised. 
The people thronged to get the bargains of- 
fered, and continued to come after all the sale 
goods had been sold. The merchant did not 
like to disappoint the crowds, so had the clerks 
take new, fresh materials and wipe the floor 
with them to make them look like the others, 
and then for their trouble the price was raised 
a few cents. The crowd eagerly snapped up 
^^the bargains" and went away happy. When 
attending a sale of any kind, one should look 
for legitimate reasons for the reduced price. 
Broken lots and odd sizes must be gotten rid 
of, even at a sacrifice. Soiled garments do not 
sell readily at the regular price, and the mer- 
chant is glad to make a reduction to get rid 
of such garments. In such a case, if the gar- 
ment be one which can be laundered and the 
reduction more than covers the cost of launder 




THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 177 

ing, tMs may be termed a legitimate bargain. 
The same may be said of mill ends, remnants, 
samples, and novelties such as belts, bags, and 
collars. Seasonal sales also furnish an oppor- 
tunity for economical purchases. For example, 
the January white goods sales have become an 
established custom in many stores. Eeal bar- 
gains may be found at such times. 

Rubber goods and silks, which deteriorate 
rapidly, are frequently put on sale in order to 
dispose of them quickly. Sale silks are seldom 
economical, and unless you are allowed to test 
a sample and find the silk unweighted, beware. 
A weighted silk which has been in stock for 
some time will seldom wear long enough to 
pay for making up. A young woman bought 
such a silk and after keeping it a few months 
took it to the dressmaker. The waist was cut 
out but never basted together, because when 
the pleats were laid it split in the creases. Occa- 
sionally there will be found in the lot an un- 
weighted silk which is really a bargain. An- 
other danger encountered in bargain sales is 
the temptation to buy things that are not needed 
at the time, and with no prospect of an early 
future need. A story is told of a woman who 



178 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

was fascinated by sales of all kinds. She fre- 
quently brought home purchases which greatly 
amused the family. One day, after attending 
a secondhand sale, she returned with a d6or- 
plate on which was engraved the name Thomp- 
son. AVhen asked what use she expected to 
make of a doorplate with Thompson on it, she 
replied that she thought one of her daughters 
might marry a Mr. Thompson and then she 
could give it to them. Perhaps this seems al- 
most unbelievable, and yet women are con- 
stantly buying things for which they have as 
little need. Benjamin Franklin said, ^^Buy what 
thou hasn't need of, and ere long thou shalt 
sell thy necessaries. '^ This does not refer to 
buying staples in quantities. It is wise to put 
in a supply of thread, needles, pins, tapes, bias 
bindings, and such things, that are frequently 
needed. This will save the inconvenience and 
loss of time caused by numerous shopping trips 
when these things happen to be needed. Staple 
cotton materials, hosiery, undergarments, and 
such other materials and garments not largely 
affected by fashion may be purchased in quan- 
tities out of season when the price has been re- 
duced. Suits, coats, etc. may be purchased late 

I 



i 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 179 

in the season. at about half price. If one is will- 
ing to wear plain tailored styles, which do not 
change so radically from season to season, in- 
|- stead of the extremes, fads, and novelties, it is 
possible to dress well on a smaller amount of 
money. A person of small means should not at- 
' tempt to keep up with all the fads, which soon 
lose their attractiveness and, therefore, necessi- 
tate frequent changes, if one is to appear well 
dressed. 
Buying staples in large quantities and buying 
1 out of season necessitate an income beyond the 
1 amount needed from day to day. Unfortunately 
I those who need most to economize are unable to 
take advantage of such method of economy. 
There are many who, either because the in- 
I come is small or because of a lack of planning, 
! buy on the installment plan. An investigation 
made in New York city showed that from 20% 
to 100% more than regular price was paid when 
the installment plan was used. It is unfortu- 
1 nate that those who need to economize most, 
frequently shop in this way. 
Cash and Charge Systems. — There are advan- 
' tages and disadvantages in both the cash and 
' the charge systems. Each individual must do- 



180 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

cide which seems wisest and most convenient 
in her particular case. Having an account gives 
standing in a store and may insure more courte- 
ous and careful treatment. It also saves time 
in shopping and gives an itemized account at 
the end of the month. On the other hand, it has 
a tendency to make one more extravagant and 
less careful in buying. In that case the cash 
system is far better even with its disadvan- 
tages. Paying cash is a good habit to acquire. 
For the w^oman of ample means there is pro- 
tection in shopping in the high grade store. 
The sales people are usually more intelligent, 
only better grades of materials are carried, and 
the firms are more nearly reliable, since the 
merchants wish to keep up their reputation, 
and will ^'make good" any purchase which is 
not as represented. Such stores have sales at 
stated times and seasons where '^legitimate bar- 
gains ' ' may be found. Frequently stores of this 
type have a basement where cheaper materials 
are sold, and sometimes the same articles may 
be found in the basement at a considerably 
lower price. For example, an umbrella whicli 
cost $5 if purchased upstairs was only $3.48 in 
the basement. The same was found true in 



1 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 181 

buying raincoats. A saving of from $2 to $3 
was possible by making the purchase in the 
basement. The reason for this is quite evident 
when the difference in the furnishings, type of 
clerk, rent, operating expenses, etc. are con- 
sidered. If a department is made attractive 
with velvet carpets and other expensive fur- 
nishings, and if there are attractive, well 
dressed clerks to wait upon us, we should keep 
in mind the fact that all this is paid for by in- 
creased prices of articles sold under such con- 
ditions. 

Everything in cheap stores is not inferior in 
quality, but unless one is a good judge it is 
often difficult to distinguish the good from the 
poor. Deceptive methods of advertising and 
selling are used which further confuse the in- 
experienced shopper. One who is capable of 
judging materials may get satisfactory fabrics 
at a lower price than in the high grade store. 
The less aristocratic store can sell cheaper be- 
cause rent and operating expenses are lower, 
and they do not carry the high i^riced novelties 
which entail great losses. 

A knowledge of sewing is an economical as- 
set to the woman who has time which may be 



182 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

spent in that way. The woman who under- 
stands the principles of garment making so that 
she may w^ork to advantage can save many dol- 
lars in the course of a year. Some dressmakers 
are not only willing but glad to design, cut, and 
fit, and leave the finishing to the woman her- 
self. A high-priced dressmaker can accomplish 
a good deal in a few days by that method at a 
considerable saving to the woman employing 
her. 

Undergarments, simple waists, and dresses 
can be made at home easily, and are often more 
satisfactory than the ready-made garments, be- 
cause better grades of materials and trimmings 
will be used and the style and fit may be better. 

Care of Clothing, — Proper care of clothing 
plays an important part in the clothes problem 
if one wishes to appear well dressed on a small 
or even reasonable amount of money. The ai> 
pearance of the most beautiful garment is 
greatly impaired if mussed, spotted, or minus 
a hook, eye, or button. On the other hand, a 
simple dress of inexpensive material, if in good 
repair and correctly put on, gives one a well 
dressed appearance. The careful brushing of 
clothes which have been worn on the street is 






THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 183 

a point frequently neglected, but is one which 
adds much to the appearance and life of the 
garment. Knowing the best methods of mend- 
ing various materials is a great advantage. 
Woolen materials can often be darned w^ith 
threads of th*z material, split silk, or hair so 
that the garment may again be presentable. 
Muslin undergarments, if neatly repaired, may 
be kept in a wearable condition for a much 
longer time. The ribbed top hose may be 
stretched and then stitched on the machine just 
where the ribbed part is joined to the lower part. 
This will prevent the runners, caused by the fas- 
tening of garters, from being continued below 
the ribbed portion. When purchased, knitted 
underwear may be reinforced at the places re- 
ceiving most strain and wear. The additional 
strength at these places will help to prevent the 
appearance of holes. Shoes which are ^^run 
down" at the heels give the wearer an untidy 
appearance. More than that, this lack of proper 
balance spoils the shape of the entire shoo, 
and makes it wear out sooner. It does uot cost 
much to have the heels straightened on a i)air 
of shoes, and money spent in tliis way is often 
an economical expenditure. It costs but little 



I 



184 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

more to have rubber heels put on at this time, 
and the luxury of rubber heels means added 
comfort in walking. Many women say that to be 
neat in appearance is the greatest task of their 
lives, and it would seem that the time expended 
in keeping clothes in order and putting them on 
correctly is greater than all other essentials. 
Yet all these precautions are well worth the ef- 
fort. 

Clothing Budgets, — A consideration of the 
proportion of the income which should be spent 
for clothing, and how that amount may be 
most wisely used, is of value. Such a study 
gives us the benefit of the experience of others 
and makes us think about the garments which 
will be best suited to our needs. This planning 
will naturally reduce expenditures, as any one 
knows that haphazard buying is extravagant. 
For the person on a salary there is quite an ad- 
vantage in planning the purchases from month 
to month and year to year. In this way it is 
possible to avoid having an undue proportion of 
purchases come in one month or one year. If 
this is not considered, a suit, waist, hat, shoes, 
and gloves may all be needed at the same time 
without sufficient money to pay for them. The 



i 

THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 185 

same is true of garments for the year. Coats, 
suits, furs, etc. should be distributed so that 
all are not purchased from one year's salary. 

Studies of thousands of family and personal 
clothing budgets show that the amount spent 
for clothing varies from 12 to 17 per cent of 
the money received. Circumstances vary the 
amount which must be spent. For example, a 
teacher or a woman in business, who must al- 
ways be well dressed, must spend more money 
for clothing than the woman in the home who is 
most neatly and properly attired for at least 
part of the day in a simple cotton house dress. 
The climate also affects the kind and amount 
of clothing needed. There is a value in keeping 
one's clothing account from year to year, since 
it shows what purchases have been made, and 
a study of it in comparison with other clothing 
budgets may show how better results could be 
obtained for the same or a smaller expenditure. 
A typical family budget and the budget for a 
business woman are given as illustrations. 

Family Budget. — The following is an actual 
account of a family living in Madison, AVis. Tlio 
father is a stone hauler and gets $4.50 a day — 



h 



186 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

$108 a month, or $1,296 a year. There are three 
children : a girl of sixteen, a boy of ten, and a 
girl five years old. The mother does most of 
the sewing for the children and herself. The 
older girl works at the telephone office and gets 
$5 a week, some of which she nses as spending 
money and to help buy some of her clothes. 
She saves $10 a month. The family owns the 
small cottage in which it lives. The amount 
spent for clothing is about 14% of the total in- 
come of the father, or $174.30 a year. This is 
not counting the extra amount that the older 
girl spends out of her own money. She spends 
for clothing about $40 a year of the money she 
earns. 

The Father's Budget 

Cost 
Articles Purchase Service a Year 

1 suit clothes, $16 ready-made 2 years $8 .00 

1 suit clothes, $12 ready-made 2 years 6 .00 

2 pairs overalls ready-made 1 year 1 .00 

1 hat 1 year 1 . 50 

1 cap 1 year 1 . 00 

Gloves and mittens 1 year 1 .50 

1 overcoat, $10 bought at sale 2 years 5 .00 

1 sweater, $5 2 years 2 . 50 

2 winter shirts 1 year 1 .50 

3 summer shirts 1 year 1 .25 

2 winter undershirts . . . bought at sale 2 years 1 .00 

2 summer undershirts. . bought at sale 1 year -50 

Carried forward $30.75 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 187 

. . 1 ,. , Cost 

Articles Purchase Service a Year 

Brought forward $30.75 

2 pairs fleece lined 

drawers 1 year $1 .00 

2 pairs summer drawers 1 year . 50 

Handkerchiefs 1 year . 25 

3 collars 1 year .30 

4 ties 1 year .70 

3 pairs shoes 1 year 9 .00 

6 pairs hose 1 year 1 .50 

Total $44 . 00 

The Mother's Budget 

Cost 

Articles Purchase Service a Year 

2 hats, $6 trimmed at home. . . 1 year 

1 coat, $10 bought at sale 2 years 

1 spring suit, $15 bought out of season 2 years 

1 wool dress, $4 made at home 2 years 

2 wash dresses made at home 2 years 

3 white waists made at home 2 years 

2 white petticoats made at home 2 years 

1 black petticoat bought at sale 1 year 

3 aprons made at home 1 year 

1 pair gloves 1 year 

3 pairs shoes odd size 1 year 

6 pairs hose 1 year 

6 handkerchiefs bought at sale 1 year 

2 winter union suits 1 year 

2 summer union suits. . bought at sale 1 year 

2 gowns made at home 1 year 

4 corset covers 1 year 

2 corsets 1 year 

2 pairs drawers made at home 1 year 

Sundries 1 year 

Total $13.15 



$6.00 


5.00 


7.50 


2.00 


4.00 


1.50 


1.00 


.75 


.50 


1.00 


5.00 


1.50 


.30 


l.'JO 


.tU) 


1.00 


l.(K) 


2.(X) 


.30 


l.(K) 



188 



THE STUDY OF FABRICS 



For Boy of Ten 



Articles 



Purchase 



Service 



Cost 
a Year 



2 caps, $1 

1 suit, $8 

1 suit, $5 

3 waists, $1 

1 sweater, $5 

8 pairs hose, $2 

3 pairs shoes, $9 

2 winter union suits, $1 
2 summer union suits, 

$.50 

1 pair mittens, $ . 50 . . . 
1 pair trousers, $1 



bought at discount, 
bought at discount, 
made at home 



1 year $1.00 



bought at sale 

bought at sale 

bought at discount., 



2 years 
2 years 

1 year 

2 years 
1 year 
1 year 
1 year 

1 year 
1 year 
1 year 



4.00 
2.50 
1.00 
2.50 
2.00 
9.00 
1.00 

.50 

.50 

1.00 



Total $25 .00 



For Girl of Five 



Articles 



Purchase 



Service 



Cost 
a Year 



1 bonnet. 
Ihat.... 
1 coat. . . 



2 wool dresses . 



4 wash dresses 

1 pair mittens 

3 white aprons 

3 white petticoats .... 

2 pairs shoes 

2 pairs slippers 

2 wool union suits. . . . 

2 summer union suits. . 

3 pairs drawers 

2 underwaists 

Carried forward 



made over from gro\Mi 
person's dress .... 

made over from grown 
person's dresses. . . 

made at home 



made at home, 
made at home, 
bought at sale, 
bought at sale. 



1 year 

1 year 

2 years 



bought at sale, 
made at home. 



$1 



00 
.75 

.50 



1 year .50 

1 year 2.00 

1 year .25 

1 year .75 

1 year .50 

1 year 1 . 50 

1 year 1 . 50 

1 year 1 .00 

1 year .30 

1 year .45 

1 year .25 



$11.25 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 189 

Cost 

Articles Purchase Service a Year 

Brought forward $11.25 

8 pairs stockings 1 year 1 . 20 

Handkerchiefs 1 year .20 

2 gowns 1 year . 50 

Total $13.15 

For Girl of Sixteen 

Cost 

Articles Purchase Service a Year 

2 hats trimmed at home ... 1 year $6 . 00 

1 coat, $15 bought at discount.. 2 years 7.50 

1 sweater, $6 2 years 3 . 00 

1 wool skirt made at home 1 year 4 . 00 

1 winter dress made at home 1 year 6 .00 

4 wash dresses made at home 1 year 10 .00 

4 waists made at home 1 year 3 .00 

2 white petticoats made at home 1 year 2 .00 

1 silk dress, $15 made at home 1 year 15 .00 

1 black petticoat 1 year .75 

2 winter union suits 1 year 2 . 00 

2 summer union suits 1 year 1 . 00 

6 corset covers made at home 1 year 1 .50 

3 corsets 1 year 3 . 00 

2 gowns made at home 1 ye r 1 . 00 

3 pairs drawers made at home 1 ye ir .90 

10 pairs hose 1 yeir 2 . 50 

12 handkerchiefs 1 year 1 .20 

Gloves 1 year 2 .00 

4 pairs shoes 1 year 12 . 00 

Ribbons, etc 1 year 1 50 

Furs, $20 2 years 10 .00 

Total $95.85 

(Father pays only $50 of thi^ amount) 



190 THE STUDY OF FABRICS 

The family has relatives from whom it often 
receives clothing that can be made over. 

Washing 

The family washing, with the exception of a 
few shirts and collars, is done by the mother. 

Soap, bluing, starch, etc $10 a year 

Laundry 2 a year 

Total $12 a year 

Clothing Budget for a Business Girl 

(Living at home and assisted by the family in 
making garments and repairs) 

The salary is about $15 a week, and the need 
is for good, everyday garments. The suits are 
made by a dressmaker outside of the home ; the 
coat is ready-made ; and other clothing is made 
at home as far as possible. Advantage is taken 
of past-season sales. The long, light-weight 
coat is serviceable all the year. The coat of the 
three piece winter suit serves when a short coat 
is desired. The cost is, on an average, $100 an- 
nually. This plan of budget making considers 
the possible service of garments as continuing 
from year to year. 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 191 

Budget for Business Girl's Clothing for 
Three Years 





Num- 
ber 


Total 
Cost 


Years 

of 
Wear 




1 






$20.00 








2.00 








6.00 








20.00 




$48.00 


3 




1 


20.00 


3 




1 


3.50 


3 




1 






2.50 








5.00 


1 


7.50 


1 




2.50 








7.00 




9.50 


2 




$SS.50 



Average 
Yearly 
Cost 

(Omitting 
Small 

Fractions) 



Suit — 3 piece, for winter: 
Coat, skirt, waist. Suit- 
ing material, serge — 16 
yds. 36 in. at $1.25-$20 
(12 yds. 50 in. at $1.50) 
Lining — Sateen, 4 yds. 36 

in. at $.50 

Interlinings, trimmings, 

etc 

Dressmaker 

Coats — Covert cloth: 
Long, light - weight, 

ready-made 

Sweater 

Dresses — summer (each 
summer a new one. This 
lasts over the next sum- 
mer) : 

Ginghams (in washable 
colors) 10 yds. 30 in. at 
$.25 

Dressmaker 

Batiste, etc.: 

10 yds. 36 in. at $.25. 

Dressmaker 



$16.00 



6.66 
1.17 



Carried forward . 



'50 



4.75 



$36. OS 



From "Textiles'^ by Woolman and McCowan. 



192 



THE STUDY OF FABRICS 



Brought forward. . . 
Separate waists (made at 

home) 

Cotton 

3 yds. 36in.at$.15... 
Trimming (average for 
3) 



Scotch flannel 

3 yds. at $.35 

Silk: 

5 yds. at $.75 

Dress skirts (made at home) 
Wool (Panama) 

5 yds. 36 in. at $1 

Cotton 

5 yds. (30-36 in.)at $.15 
Petticoats : 

Sateen, 5 yds. at $ . 35 . . . 
Colored cotton, 5 yds. at 

$.15 

White cotton 4 yds. at 

$.15 

Embroidery or Lace. . . . 
Corset covers: 

IMyds. at $.15 

Lace or embroidery .... 



Nightdresses: 
4 yds. at $.15. 
Trimming 



Carried forward 



.45 
.15 



1.05 
3.75 

5.00 
.75 

1.75 

.75 

.60 
1.00 

.20 
.30 



.60 
.40 



Num- 
ber 


Total 
Cost 




$88.50 


3 






1.80 


1 






1.05 


2 


7.50 



Years 

of 
Wear 



5.00 
.75 

1.75 

.75 

3.20 

2.00 

3.00 



$115.30 



1 
3 

2 
1 
2 
1 
3 



Average 
Yearly 
Cost 

(Omitting 
Small 

Fractions) 



$36.08 



1.80 

1.05 
2.50 

2.50 
.75 
.88 
.75 

1.10 

2.00 
1.50 



$50.91 



THE ECONOMICS OF CLOTHING 193 



Brought forward 

Drawers : 

13^ yds. at $.15 

Trimming (average) . . 

Hats: 

Winter 

Summer 

Gloves : 

Kid 

Silk 

Chamoisette 

Corsets 

Hosiery, 9 pr. at 3 for $1 . 
Shoes, 3 pr. at $4 each . . . 

(or 4 pr. at $3 average) 
Rubbers, 2 pr. at $ . 75 each 
Underwear: 

Cotton shirts, $.25. . 

Combinations, $1 (heavy) 



.28 
.30 



1.25 
.50 
.50 



Sum left for extras . 
Total 



Num- 
ber 



Total 
Cost 



$115.30 



1.16 



1 
1 

2 
2 
2 
lor 2 
9 
3 



8.00 
5.00 

2.50 
1.00 
1.00 
2.00 
3.00 
12.00 

1.50 

1.00 
3.00 



Years 
of 

Wear 



$156.46 



Average 

Yearly 

CoHt 

(Omitting 
Small 

Fractions) 



$50.91 



1.16 



8.00 
5.00 

2.50 
1.00 
1.00 
2.00 
3.00 
12.00 

1.50 

1.00 
1.50 



$90.57 
9.43 



$100.00 



INDEX 



Absorbent cotton, 14 
Accessories, Soap, 112 
Acetic acid, 15 
Acid, 15 

action on linen, 98 

dyes, 21 

effect on animal fibers, 
107 

effect on vegetable fi- 
bers, 106 

hydrochloric, 86 
Acid test. Nitric, 61 

tannic, 78 
Acidulated water, 58 
Action of acids, 15, 98 

of alkalies, 16, 98 
Adulterated silk, 86 
Agents, Bleaching, 17 
Alcohol, 120 
Alkalies, 16 

action on linens, 98 

effect on animal fibers, 
107 

effect on vegetable fi- 
bers, 107 
Alkali test, 58, 60 
Alum, 117 



Ammonia, 17 
Aniline dyes, 23 

bluing, 114 
Animal fibers. Effect of 
acids on, 107 
effect of alkalies on, 
107 
Artificial bleaching stuffs, 
17 
silk, 86 
Art linen, 98 

Baling cotton, 9 

Bargain, What is a, 175 

Basic dyes, 21 

Bast fiber, 93 

Batiste, 25 

Batten, Cotton, 11 

Battening, 5 

Beams, 6 

Bed linen, 100 

Bengal ine, 73 

Blanket wools, 33 

Bleach, 113 

Bleaching agents, 17, 126 

linen, 95 

sulphur dioxide, 128 



195 



196 



INDEX 



Block printing, 23 
Blood stains, 121 
Bluing, 113 

aniline, 114 

Indigo, 114 

Prussian, 114 

test for presence of 
iron, 114 

ultramarine, 115 
Boiling in lye solution, 
Materials before and 
after, 57, 59, 60 
Bombyx mori, 66 
Borax, 109 
Bottle for pressing seams, 

119 
Braking flax, 93 
Broadcloth, 32, 39 
Brocaded satin, 73 
Budget, Clothing, 184 

business girl, 190 

family, 185 
Burning to detect cotton, 
56 

weighting in silk, 82 
Butcher's linen, 99 

Calendering cloth, 12, 20 
Calico, 24 
Cambric, 25 
Carbona, 120 
Carbonated or caustic al- 
kalies, 16 



Carbon tetrachloride, 120 
Carding, 11, 36, 37 
Care of clothing, 148, 182 
Carpet wools, 33 
Cash and charge systems, 

179 
Cashmere, 31 
Cellulose, 15 

Characteristics of cotton, 
Physical, 12 

of silk fiber, 76 
Chardonnet silk, 87, 88 
Charge systems, 179 
Chemical characteristics ' 
of silk fiber, 76, 78 

nature of cotton, 14 

test for cotton and 
wool, 56 
Chemicals, Effect of, on 

fiber, 14 
Cheviots, 62 
Chiffon, 73 
China silk, 73 
Chloride of lime, 17 
Chloroform, 120 
Citrates, 15 
Cleaning cotton, 11 

white kid gloves, 127 

white shoes, 127 
Clothes, Hanging, 130] 

soiled, 150 
Clothing budget, 184, j 
190 



INDEX 



197 



Clothing, care of, 148, 
182 
economics of, 163 
function of, 142 
hygiene of, 141 
keeping clean, 148 
objects of, 144 
Cocoa stains, 122 
Coffee stains, 122 
Collars, 158 
Collodion silk, 89 
Colors, To set, 116 
selection of, 172 
Combing, 11, 37 
Common cotton materials, 
24 
linen fabrics, 98 
silk materials, 73 
Compared with price. 
Wearing qualities, 
27 
Comparison of different 

varieties of wool, 31 
Conduction of heat and 
electricity by wool, 
34 
Corduroy, 25 
Corsets, 149, 150 
Cortex of wool, 32 
Cotton, 1, 6 
bleaching, 17 
burning to detect, 56 
chemical nature of, 14 



Cotton, 

cleaning, 11 
distinguishing between 

linen and, 102 
fibers. Types of, 13 
for undergarments, 146 
hygroscopicity of, 146 
materials. Common, 24 
mercerized, 18, 21 

Crash, 98 

Cream stains, 122 

Crepe de Chine, 74 

Damask, 98 
French, 100 
German, 99 
Difference between hair 

and wool, 32 
Different varieties of wool 

compared, 31 
Dimity, 25 
Discharge process of 

printing, 24 
Distinguishing between 
cotton and linen, 102 
Dotted Swiss, 29 
Drawing cotton, 11 

wool, 38 
Dressing economically, 

166 
Dressing in cotton, 27 
Drying tiax, 93 
woolens, 131 



198 



INDEX 



Dyeing, 12, 21, 35, 38, 

70 
Dyes, response of linen 

to, 98 
test for fastness, 64 

Economical dressing, 166 
Economics of clothing, 

163 
Effect of, acids on animal 
fibers, 107 
acids on vegetable fi- 
bers, 106 
acids on wool, 34 
alkalies on animal fi- 
bers, 107 
alkalies on vegetable 

fibers, 107 
alkalies on wool, 34 
chemicals on cotton 
fiber, 15 
Eiderdowns, 61 
Elasticity of wool, 34 
Electric iron, 138 
Electricity, linen conduc- 
tor of, 97 
wool conductor of, 34 
Epidermis of wool, 31 
Evolution of spinning, 1 

of weaving, 1 
Experiment on mercer- 
ized cotton, 21 
on wool, 56 



Fabrics, Common linen, 

98 
Fading, Tests for fast- 
ness to, 64 
Family budget, 185 

washing, 190 
Fashion, Effect on wool 

supply, 42 
Fastness to dyes, crock- 
ing, and fading. 
Tests for, 64 
perspiration, 26 
sunlight, 25 
washing, 26 
Felting property of wool, 

32 
Fermentation, Cotton lia- 
ble to, 14 
Fiber, Bast, 93 

effect of acids on vege- 
table and animal, 
106, 107 
effect of alkalies on 
vegetable and ani- 
mal, 107 
effect of chemicals on 

cotton, 15 
flax, 97 

physical and chemical 
characteristics of silk 
and linen, 76, 96 
test for quality of, 29 
types of cotton, 13 



INDEX 



199 



Fibroin, 68, 78 
Finishing woolens, 39 
Firmness of weave, 52 
Flannels, 63 
Flax fibers, 97 

culture, 92 

in different stages of 
preparation for 

weaving, 91 

spinning, 94 
Fleeces, 37 
Floss, Silk, 70 
Foulard, 74 
French damask, 100 
Fruit stains, 122 
Functions of clothing, 
142 

Garments, One-piece, 157 
ready-made, 167 
worn at night, 160 

Gasoline, 120 

German damask, 99 

Gingham, 24 

Ginning cotton, 9 

Glass toweling, 99 

Gloves, What to buy, 
169 

Glycerine, 122 

Gossypium, 6 

Grass stains, 125 

Grease, 119 
wagon^ 121 



Habutai, 74 
Hackling flax, 93 
Hair and wool, Differ- 
ence between, 32 
Half ripe cotton fibers, 13 
Hand cards, 36 
Handkerchief linen, 99 

to wash, 135 
Hanging clothes, 130 
Hardness of water. Tem- 
porary and perma- 
nent, 109 
Hard soap, 111 

water, 108 
Hats, 159, 174 
Heat conduction, of cot- 
ton, 14 

of linen, 14, 97 

of wool, 34 
Heddle, 6 

Homemade soap. 111 
Household linen, 99 
Huckaback, 99 
Hydrochloric acid, 86 
Hygiene of clothing, 141 
Hygroscopicity of cotton, 
14, 146 

silk, 146 

wool, 33, 146 

Imported silks, 73 
Indigo blue, 114 
Ink stains, 124 



200 



INDEX 



Insects, Cotton resistant 

to, 14 
Iodine or medicine stain, 

125 
Irish linen, 99 
Iron, Electric, 138 

rust, 123 
Iron in bluing, Tests for, 

114 
Ironing, 130 

Javelle water, 17, 126, 

128 
John Brown linen, 99 

Laces, To wash, 134 
Laundry, Cooperative, 
139 

machinery, 135 

problems, 104 

soaps, 112 
Laws, Pure textile, 46, 82 
Leash, 6 
Leather goods. What to 

buy, 169 
Length of wool fibers, 33 
Lime in soap. 111 
Linen, 90 

action of acids and al- 
kalies upon, 98 

art, 98 

bed, 100 



Linen, 

bleaching, 17, 95 

butcher's, 99 

conductor of heat and 
electricity, 97 

distinguishing between 
cotton and, 102 

dyeing, 22 

fabrics, Common, 98 

fiber. Physical and 
chemical characteris- 
tics of, 96, 145 

French damask, 100 

German damask, 100 

handkerchief, 99 

heat conduction of, 14 

household, 99 

Irish, 99 

John Brown, 99 

luster, 97 

response to dyes, 98 

Scotch, 99 

sizing, 96 

table, 99 

tests of, 102 

toweling, 101 

undergarments, 146 

weaving, 94 
Long-staple wools, 33 
Loom, 5 
Louisine, 74 
Luster of wool, 33 
Lye in soap, 110 



INDEX 



201 



Machinery for laundry, 

135 
Machines, Power, 138 

washing, 135 
Maline, 74 
Mangles, 137 
Materials before and aft- 
er boiling in lye, 57, 

59, 60 
common silk, 73 
Mature cotton fiber, 13 
Meal, Cottonseed, 9 
Meat juice stains, 121 
Medicine stains, 125 
Mending, 183 
Mercerized cotton, 18, 19 

test for, 21 
Mildew, 14 

removal of, 125 
Milk spots, 122 

stains, 122 
Mineral acids, 15, 16 
Miscellaneous wools, 33 
Mixed cotton and wool, 

chemical test, 56 
Moire, 74 
Mold, 125 
Mordants, 12, 21, 22, 78, 

116 
reaction of linen 

toward, 98 
Moths, Cotton resistant 

to, 14 



Mousseline de Sole, 74 
Mucus stains, 121 
Mulberry silkworm, 66 
Mull, 25 
Muslin, 24 

Nainsook, 25 

Naphtha soap, 120 

Nap of wool goods, Rais- 
ing, 119 

Napping, 40 

Natural dyestuffs, 22 

Neutralizing solution, 17 

Night, Garments worn at, 
160 

Noils, 37 

Oil, Cotton, 9 
One-piece garments, 157 
Organic acids and salts, 

15, 16 
Organdie, 25 
Oxalic acid, 15 

Paint stains, 121 
Parts of loom, 5 
Peau de Soie, 75 
Percale, 25 
Percentage of shrinkage, 

Test for, 27 
Permanent liardness of 

water, 109 



202 



INDEX 



Perspiration, Effect of, on 
silk, 80 
test for fastness to, 26 

Physical characterist ics 
of cotton, 12 
characteristics of silk 

fiber, 76 
properties of textiles, 
145 

Picking, 5, 9 

Pique, 25 

Planting cotton, 7 

Plush, 75 

Pongee, 66, 75 

Power machines, 138 

Presence of iron in blu- 
ing, Test for, 114 

Pressing seams with bot- 
tle, 119 

Price, Wearing qualities 
compared with, 27 

Printing, 23 

Prussian blue, 114 

Pure silks before and 
after burning, 83, 86 

Pure textile laws, 46 

Quality of fiber, Test for, 
29 
of wool, 30 

Raddle, 6 

Raising nap of wool 
goods, 119 



Rajah, 75 

Raw silk, 67 

Ready-made garments, 
167 

Reagent for cleaning, 120 

Reasons for washing, 105 

Reed, 6 

Reeled and waste silk, 71 

Reeling, Silk, 69, 71 

Removing stains, 118 

Resist process of print- 
ing, 24 

Retting flax, 93 

Rhubarb, 15 

Rinsing colored clothes, 
117 

Rippling flax, 93 

Rubbers, 154 

Rust, Iron, 123 

Sales, 176 

Saltpeter, 117 

Salts of organic acids, 15 

Salt to set colors, 116 

Sateen, 25 

Satin, 75 

brocaded, 73 

Skinner's, 75 
Scotch linen, 99 
Scrim, 25 
Scutching flax, 93 
Serges, 63 
Sericin, 68, 78 



INDEX 



203 



Set colors, To, 116 
Sewing, Knowledge of, 

181 
Shearing, 35 
Shedding, 5 

Shepherd checked mate- 
rials, 55, 61 
Shields, 149 
Shoddy, 43, 63 
Shoes, 153, 169, 183 
Shopping, 180 
Short-staple wools, 33 
Shrinkage of wool, 32 

test for percentage of, 
27 
Shuttle, 4, 6 
Silk, 66 

adulterated, 86 

artificial, 86 

Chardonnet, 87, 88 

China, 73 

dyeing, 22, 70 

fiber, Physical and 
chemical characteris- 
tics of, 76 

finish, 20 

floss, 70 

hygroscopicity of, 146 

imported, 73 

manufacture in the 
United States, 72 

materials, 73 

pure^ 83^ 86 



Silk, 

reeled and waste, 69, 71 

wash, 86 

weighting, 70, 78, 83 
Silkworm, 66, 72 
Sizing linen, 96 
Skirts, long, 158 
Sleeping bags, 161 
Slivers, 37 
Soap, 110 

homemade. 111 

laundry, 112 

substitutes, 112 
Soda, Washing, 109 
Softening hard water, 

109 
Soft water, 108 
Soiled clothes, 150 
Solutions of acids, 15 
Solvents, 120 
Sorting wool, 37 
Specifications, War De- 
partment, 47 
Spinning cotton, 11 

evolution of, 1 

flax, 94 

wool, 38 
Sprinkling clothes, 131 
Stains, 17 

blood, 121 

cocoa, 122 

coffee, 122 

cream, 123 



204 



INDEX 



Stains, 

fruit, 122 

grass, 125 

grease, 119 

ink, 124 

iodine, 125 

meat juice, 121 

medicine, 125 

milk, 122 

mucus, 121 

removing, 118 

tea, 122 

varnish, 121 
Stockings, Selection of, 

156, 170 
Strengthening threads, 12 
Strength of materials. 
Test for, 28 

of wool, Tensile, 34, 53 
Substantive dyes, 21 
Substitutes for soap, 112 
Sugar of lead, 117 
Sunlight, Test for fast- 
ness to, 25 
Swiss, Dotted, 29 

Table linen, 99 
Taffeta, 75 
Tannic acid, 78 
Tapa cloth, 2 
Tartrates, 15 
Teasel, 39 
Tea stains, 122 



Temporary and perma- 
nent hardness of wa- 
ter, 109 
Tensile strength of wool, 

34, 53 
Tenterhooks, 6 
Tests for crocking, 26, 
64 
dressing in cottons, 27 
fading, 64 
fastness to dyes, 64 
fastness to perspira- 
tion, 26 
fastness to sunlight, 25 
fastness to washing, 26 
iron in bluing, 114 
linen, 102 

mercerized cotton, 21 
percentage of shrink- 
age, 27 
quality of fiber, 29 
strength of materials, 

28 
War Department, 48 
weighting, 82 
woolen materials, 51 
Textile laws, 46, 82 
Thin fiber, 13 
Thread, 11 

Throwing the shuttle, 4 
Tops, 33 
Toweling, 101 
Tulle, 76 



INDEX 



205 



Tussah silk, 66 

Types of cotton fibers, 13 

Ultramarine blue, 115 
Union suits, 158 

Varieties of wool, Com- 
parison of, 31 

Varnish stains, 121 

Vegetable fibers. Effect of 
acids on, 106 
effect of alkalies on, 107 

Veils, 159 

Velvet, 76 

Velveteen, 25 

Vinegar, 15, 58 

Virgin wool, 62 

Viyella flannel, 63 

War Department specifi- 
cations, 47, 48 
Warp and weft, 55, 58 
Warp shed, 4 
Washing compounds, 113 

family, 190 

handkerchiefs, 135 

hanging clothes, 130 

lacco, 134 

reasons for, 105 

soda, 109 

test for fastness to, 26 

when to wash, 129 

woolens, 131 



Waste in wool manufac- 
ture, 43 
silk, 71 
Water, Hard and soft, 

108 
Wearing qualities com- 
pared with price, 27 
Weaving, 12, 38 
evolution of, 1 
firmness, 52 
flax, 91 
linen, 94 
Weighting silk, 70, 78, 

83 
What is a bargain? 175 
White gloves, To clean, 

127 
White shoes. To clean, 

127 
Wool, 30 

as conductor of elec- 
tricity, 34 
blanket, 33 
carding, 36, 37 
carpet, 33 
chemical test, 56 
combing, 37 
cortex, 32 
difference between liair 

and, 32 
drawing and spinning, 

38 
dyeing, 22, 35, 38 



206 



INDEX 



Wool, 

effect of acids and al- 
kalies on, 34 

elasticity of, 34 

epidermis, 31 

felting property of, 32 

finishing, 39 

fleeces, 37 

for undergarments, 146 

goods. To raise the nap 
of, 119 

hygroscopicity of, 33, 46 

length of fibers, 33 

long-staple, 33 

luster of, 33 

medulla, 32 

miscellaneous, 33 

napping, 40 

noils, 37 

quality of, 30 



Wool, 

shearing, 35 

shoddy, 43 

short-staple, 33 

shrinkage of, 32, 35, 40 

slivers, 37 

sorting, 37 

tensile strength of, 34 

tops, 33 

varieties compared, 31 

weaving, 38 
Woolen materials, Tests 
for, 51 

yarn, 41 
Woolens, To wash, 131 
Worsted cheviots, 63 

yarn, 41 

Yarn, woolen, 41 
worsted, 41 

(1) 



459 - 90 



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